Mongolia
Mongolia | |
---|---|
Mongolian National Republic | |
Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Улс | |
Capital | Oorga |
Languages | Khalkha Mongol Mandarin Burjat Oirat Russian |
Mongolia (Mongol: ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠤᠯᠤᠯᠤᠰ; Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Улс) is a landlocked nation in Central Asia, bordering Russia to the east and north, China to the south, Turkestan to the west & Serindia to the southwest.
History
Premodern era
The territory of modern-day Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the First Turkic Khaganate, and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous land empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China to establish the Yuan dynasty. In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism spread to Mongolia, being further led by the Manchu-founded Qing dynasty, which absorbed the country in the 17th century.
Khalkha khanates & the Tüsheet Khanate
Four Khalkha Mongol khanates ruled by Chingizid khans dominated local politics in Outer Mongolia since the mid-16th century. During the Canton War, the secession of South China and the Anglo-French invasion of Qing China, local Mongol rulers led by the Chingizid Tüsheet Khan Tserendorj saw the weakness of the Qing state and decided to strike. On 1853 the Khan declared Mongolia free from Qing rule and that Mongolia shall know be known as the 'Ikh Mongol Uls', meaning the "Great Mongolian State".
Sino-Mongolian War and Russian influence
The declaration of independence from the Qing led to the bloody Sino-Mongolian War (1853-1860) in which the new Mongolian state made heavy use of Russian Cossack mercenaries, growing increasingly dependent on Russian trade. By 1877 the Khanate of Mongolia was effectively a Russian client state with strong political and economic dependencies on the empire. In 1879, Russia supported a Russian-educated heir claimant to the Khanate which solidified their grasp on the region.
Mongolia in the early 20th century
Mongolia remained a strong Russian ally and started to adopt many Russian institutions (including a major reform to their military in 1901) but still remained a devotedly Buddhist nation with Russian priests being banned from proselytizing in the nation. In 1905 after the Khan died the fourth Tüsheet Khan, Dashyam, turned Mongolia into a full Buddhist theocratic state after he was declared to be the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu and Bogd Gegeen.
Mongolian Revolution
During the European Economic Crisis and the subsequent chaos in Russia, Mongolia found itself in a uncertain position with it's strongest benefactor falling to revolution and the nation being swept up in ever raising ethnic tension. In 1928, the Mongolian National Republican movement, led by Dulduityn Gantulga, took inspiration from Russia and staged a coup against the Khan. Gantulga abolished the Khanate and declared the creation of the Mongolian National Republic (which was recognized by Russian nationalist government of Anastaze Murmsky shortly after).
Between 1928 and 1933, Gantulga's new government preceded with a policy of exiling and discriminating against Han Chinese in the country. This led to a wave of emigration of Chinese out of the country and towards neighboring nations such as Serindia and Tibet. Gantulga's rule ended after his death in 1935, and he was succeeded by his ally, Sembiin Ganbatar.
Détente with China
One of Ganbatar's goals was to establish mutual recognition with the southern Chinese Republic, which had also undergone a national republican revolution in the early 1930s. On September 6, 1936, Ganbatar met with the Duke of Ceng, the first president of China, and formally established diplomatic relations. As a result, Ganbatar, unlike his predecessor Gantulga, adopted a more moderate approach to ethnic policies concerning Chinese communities, recognizing the new Chinese National Republic as a significant regional power. Ganbatar aimed to foster cooperation with both China and Russia, striving for balanced and positive relations with both nations.
Ganbatar's reforms
During Ganbatar's rule, the government initiated a sweeping anti-nobility campaign, effectively dismantling the traditional Mongolian aristocracy. The nobility, which Ganbatar called "an obstacle to modern state-building", lost their landholdings and privileges, which were redistributed or nationalized.
The state also nationalized key resources, establishing state-owned enterprises to manage Mongolia's coal, copper, and gold mines. These nationalized industries became the backbone of Mongolia’s economy, generating revenue for the young republic.
A campaign to improve education was launched in both urban and rural areas. The government fully adopted the Cyrillic script in 1936 and promoted a standardized national Mongolian language, with schools established across the country to promote literacy and modernize the population. In this period, infrastructure projects—roads, railways, and utilities—were developed with both Russian and Chinese investment.
Mongolia during the Silent War
As the global oil boom gained momentum in the early to mid-20th century, nations and enterprises worldwide began commissioning prospectors in hopes of significant discoveries. Serindia, long suspected of possessing substantial oil reserves, commenced oil production in the early 1940s. Driven by ethnic nationalism, Mongolia and China, which had longstanding disputes over oil-producing regions, began to assert their claims to Dschungaria and Gamsu, respectively. The two nations, having set aside most of their territorial disputes in the 1939 Treaty of Bayannaoer, started to strengthen their ties throughout the 1940s and 1950s.
Tüdeviin Erdene and the pivot towards China
In 1962, Tüdeviin Erdene succeeded Ganbatar as chairman after his death. Under Erdene's leadership, relations with China improved, and he aimed to foster an economic alliance with Tibet and China. In 1963, Mongolia, China, and Tibet engaged in the secret Chamdo talks, which established borders in a potential partitioning of the ailing Serindia. The situation escalated in 1964 when the British withdrew material support for Serindia due to conflicts in Persia and Austria, along with leaked intelligence outlining the Chamdo plans.
In April 1964, Mongolia, Tibet, and China formed the Central Asian Community Alliance and jointly invaded Serindia, demanding an end to violence against ethnic minorities in the state and the relinquishment of certain regions. Serindia surrendered in October of that year and was forced to sign the Treaty of Kumul, which, among other stipulations, ceded Dschungaria to the Mongol National Republic.
Yadamsüren's coup (1968)
By the late 1960s, the Mongolian National Republican Party was divided over Chairman Tüdeviin Erdene's growing affinity for China. A pro-Russian faction within the party, led by Dolgor Yadamsüren, staged a coup in the capital, Oorga, and arrested Erdene. Yadamsüren garnered significant popular support, being perceived as prioritizing Mongolia's interests. In response to the change in power, Russian Chairman Ilya Kiselev quickly recognized Yadamsüren's government and offered a guarantee of security. Subsequently, Yadamsüren retracted all commercial mining contracts with Chinese companies, which provoked strong backlash from China. His government enacted a complete reversal of the previous administration's agreements with China.
Democratization of Mongolia (1980)
Following the Russian Lustrum and the democratization of Russia, as well as the overthrow of Chairman Ilya Kiselev, Yadamsüren found himself in a precarious position without his main supporter. To navigate this, he sought to recognize the new democratic government in Russia, hoping to secure its support. Meanwhile, Chinese forces began to amass along the Sino-Mongolian border, raising concerns that war was imminent.
In 1979, Sergey Gromov, the newly elected chairman of Russia, offered military support to Mongolia in exchange for the democratization of the country along Russian lines. Yadamsüren accepted this proposal, and elections were held in 1980. He won a majority of the vote, largely due to his popularity stemming from his strong stance against Chinese aggression.
Sino-Russian confrontation in Mongolia (1980-1983)
Tensions escalated between the Russian and Chinese governments as both nations sought to assert their influence over Mongolia. By 1980, as Russian troops moved into Mongolia to maintain stability and support the new democratic government, China simultaneously began to bolster its military presence along the southern border. There was an atmosphere of heightened alert and mistrust in the heavily militarized border. Chinese General-Secretary Śio Gwolong demanded the Russians to withdraw from the border, accusing Russia of only worsening the tensions. Yadamsüren's government attempted to send delegates to the Chinese capital, Namging, but they were unwelcome.
With tensions high, skirmishes occasionally erupted between Chinese and Russian forces in 1981 without a formal declaration of war, primarily near contested border areas and resource-rich regions. Although these confrontations were intense, they were sparse and did not escalate into full-scale war. A ceasefire was eventually established in 1983, after Gwolong was succeeded by Phu Dwo as Chinese General Secretary. However, the rest of the 1980s saw the Sino-Mongolian border still highly militarized.
List of leaders
Government and Politics
Territorial Disputes
Vague language in the 1964 Treaty of Kumul has led to an ongoing dispute over the Ili valley which has been occupied by Mongolia but claimed by Serindia as integral territory.
Demographics
Ethnicity
Han Chinese
The Sino-Corean War led to numerous ethnic Han refugees settling in Mongolia from 1888 to 1915. This led to a gradual rise in ethnic and sectarian conflict between the two groups as well as bouts of violence, like the 1899 Anti-Han pogrom in Oorga. From 1928 and 1933 the Mongolia government instituted discriminatory ethnic and cultural policies against it's Han Chinese minority as well as deporting over a third of their overall population to Russian Poeja and Northern China. In 1939 anti-Chinese discrimination mostly ended with the signing of Sino-Mongolian Treaty of Bayannaoer which included a provision banning both nations from persecuting each other's ethnic groups.
Uighurs
Mostly inhabiting the territories gained by Mongolia in Dschungaria, Uighurs have experienced high levels of state directed cultural assimilation. In 1965 the Mongolian government restricted public displays of the Islamic religion as well as a moratorium on the building of Mosques.
See also