History of Japan
Fudai supremacy: 1651–1675
| Geba Shogun period | |
|---|---|
| 1651–1675 | |
 | |
| Monarch(s) | Go-Komjo (1643–1651) Go-Sai (1655–1662) Reigen (1662–1691) |
| Leader(s) | Ieçuna (1651–1663) Çunaxige (1663–1675) |
The 24-year period encompassing the reigns of shoguns Tokugawa Ieçuna and Çunaxige was dominated by the Senior Council, an institution composed of numerous high-ranking hereditary lords (fudai 譜代). Throughout this era, Japan would experience a complex and tense foreign policy situation, economic growth and transformation, and the beginning of a shift in domestic social conditions.
Rise of the Senior Council
First established in 1636, the Senior Council initially functioned as an advisory board to the shogun. Under the auspices of three Grand Councillors from the Sakai clan, the power of the shogun gradually declined in favor of the Council and the fudai families. In order to cement their power, the Sakai clan formed an alliance with the related Hayashi clan (hajaxi-xi 林氏), a family of Neo-Confucian scholars, in the early 1650s. Hayashi scholars, who had acquired their privileged position through their blood relations with the Sakai and Tokugawa, were able to promulgate their ideology and take the lead in the composition of historical records.
The Council also spearheaded efforts at economic reform, especially in order to reduce the export of Japanese silver, which was becoming increasingly rare after the silver boom of 1550–1645. In 1655, the itowappu system, which provided that Japanese merchants buy Chinese silk at set prices, was abolished. In 1666, the state banned silver exports altogether, instead encouraging the export of copper, gold, and marine products such as abalone, shark fins, and kelp to China and the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Despite their labor, these policies did not prevent the illegal smuggling of silver out of Japan by Asian vagabonds, a practice discreetly encourage by the VOC.
The Zeng alliance
Shortly before the ascension of Ieçuna in 1651, Tokugawa Iemiçu consented to establishing a formal relationship with the anti-Qing vagabond Zeng clan, led by the half-Japanese half-Chinese warlord Koxinga. While official records remain vague on the nature of this initial relationship, the shogunate treated the Zeng family as the de facto leaders of the Ming loyalist refugee community in Japan. Later, in 1654, the government proposed the formation of an anti-Qing, anti-Dutch alliance. The offer was only accepted by Koxinga in 1656, after a Dutch embassy to Beiging established the two-century-long Dutch-Qing-Corea alliance, threatening the economic security of both the Zeng and the Japanese state.
Subsequently, the shogunate increased its political and economic support of the Zeng maritime organization and allowed periodic raids on Dutch shipping in the East China Sea. In 1658, Koxinga led the Iron Army (teçuzin 鉄人) in an invasion of Namging, attempting to resurrect a Ming state on the Chinese continent. It resulted in defeat due to a number of factors such as the appearance of an unexpected Dutch force, severe weather, infighting within the Zeng family, and the shogunate’s refusal to supply armaments for the military expedition.
Many Ming loyalists fled the armies of the Qing dynasty for the Kingdom of Loetsjoe and from there, Japan. Koxinga and the surviving members of the Iron Army sought refuge with his brother Xicizaemon, head agent of Nagasaki port. Along with them came Zu Sugwey, Prince of Ningzing, one of the last remaining Ming princes and ancestor of the Ye dynasty emperors. The Zeng mercantile dynasty remained in good graces with the shogunate for decades due to their importance in maintaining the health of the Nagasaki economy and their function as a counterweight to the VOC. Trade embargoes on Dutch Formosa were maintained by the Tokugawa shogunate for decades thereafter.
Manzi era: 1658–1663
In the late 1650s, some in Japan endorsed the normalization of relations with the Dutch due to their relative patience and irreligiousity compared to their Spanish and Portuguese counterparts. However, others postulated the declining profits of the Zeng organization and the ever-successful Dutch colonization of Formosa as reason to find new counterweights to the VOC. The latter view prevailed, with a small base near Kagoxima being given to a group of Portuguese Macanese merchants with instructions to throttle Dutch trade. Soon after, the VOC, Neo-Confucian scholars, and others strongly voiced their opposition to this decision. This in turn led to a revival of anti-Christian persecution, with many lords and stewards opening regional investigations in order to eliminate secret Catholic communities that had survived the Shimabara Rebellion of 1638.
In 1661, the Oomura Bay Revolt erupted in southwestern Kyushu. Numerous confraria (underground Catholic brotherhoods), disgruntled peasants, Portuguese merchants, Ming loyalists, and other disaffected communities rose up against the shogunate. Despite being a heterogenous rebellion, it was widely viewed by the government as a Christian one. Confucian scholars described the evil of the 'wicked religion' (zahoo 邪法) which sought to dupe Japanese peasants (genin 下人) with the promise of riches (ri 利). Eventually, the Revolt was suppressed in 1662 with 2,000 casualties, soon followed by the establishment of local offices of religious inquisition.
Kanbun era: 1663–1675
Emperor Reigen declared the new Kanbun era (寛文) in early 1663 in order to mark the disasters of the past five years. Under new Grand Councillor Sakai Tadakijo, the government issued new kaikin edicts cutting the Zeng family's profit margins and reasserting central government control over foreign trade and foreign residents. International commerce was limited to one million taels (兩) annually in 1671, with 600,000兩 to China, 275,000兩 to the Dutch, and 125,000兩 to the Zeng organization. Additionally, stricter passport controls were created throughout the nation, limiting non-Japanese merchants to the ports of Desjima, Nagasaki, Hirado, and Çuxima.
The VOC, frustrated by Japan's embargoes on Dutch commerce, petitioned for the Kingdom of Scotland to be granted a small trading outpost in Hirado. In 1669, the Royal Company of Scotland successfully received permission to construct said outpost on Hirado Island with the same terms and conditions as the Dutch were operating under in Desjima. This settlement would eventually be dissolved in the mid-1710s due to lack of profit and diplomatic pressure from the shogunate to do so.
Later Edo period: 1675–1754
The Dutch Rush
The Taquexima incident was the first official instance of Dutch intercession in Corean political affairs. It contributed to the generally positive Corean perspective of the Dutch, which eventually led to the Corean state allowing the formation of the Dutch territory at Poesjan in 1710. Hoekstra became the first administrator of the territory and remained influential until his death in 1719. He was known in Japan for his harsh policy on Japanese traders and the dismissal of a petition to expand Poesjan’s immigrant quarters.
Rapid expansion of Dutch influence in Asia was regarded negatively by other European powers. The French named the phenomenon the poussée-hollandais, or ‘Dutch Rush’ in English.
Arrival of the Russians
The Dutch established a trading colony, similar in nature to Macao, in the Corean port city of Poesjan in 1710. Explorers employed by Russia saw an opportunity in this and launched an expedition in 1739, establishing a basic commercial relationship. A Japanese studies school was founded in Irkutsk, and was staffed by descendants of Japanese fishermen.
In the economically declining Dewa province, the Jonezawa and Xonai domains, ruled by the Uesugi and Sacai respectively, competed for a head start in Russian trade relations. Both fought over the key port of Sacata. The Lord of Jonezawa won militarily, but failed to establish relations with the Russians due to infighting and corruption in the Uesugi family. Mori Toxima, a guard employed by the Uesugi, defected to the Sacai family and offered his skills. The Lord of Xonai’s relatives in Obama offered to lend him the port of Maizuru, which was granted to the Sacai in 1666.
1755 marked the year in which Russian merchants began routinely trading in Maizuru, threatening Dutch monopolies. The Russo-Japanese Trading Company (RYT) formed in 1756. The Lord of Xonai also owned the trading post of Texio in northwestern Ezo, which became a port of call for Russian traders.
Cioho Reforms
Xogun Tocugawa Joximune introduced a series of separate reforms and policies starting in 1716 in order to restore the financial well-being of the state and consolidate Tocugawa supremacy. Several controls and restrictions were imposed on Japanese society in an effort to increase çu (sophistication). Joximune’s former regent, the Lord of Owari Tocugawa Joximichi, actively criticized the xogunate’s new reforms, creating an intense polarization in the court and undermining the authority of the Xogun.
Disastrous taxation reform
Increasing revenue in the traditional manner had failed due to the absence of new land surveys and weakening of xogunal authority in the countryside, leading to thousands of cocu being unreported to the state. In the government, two factions emerged with differing opinions on raising revenue: one advocating land reclamation with the help of the Dutch, while the other supporting a more income-based tax system (comononari). The Xogun eventually decided on an income-based tax system after strong Confucian opposition to utilizing Dutch technological knowledge.
This attempted reform led to extensive peasant revolts, led by village leaders. A policy where if the lords donated an additional 2% of taxes to the state, they would be able to live in their domains for half the year instead of residing in the capital every day. Domain officials had to travel to Osaca or Edo to exchange rice for money in order to pay taxes, creating a financial crisis and a shortage of coins.
Foreign interference and merchants
Several domains were in debt since the mid-17th century. Lords took loans from merchants and businessmen and often couldn’t pay them back, leading to several lawsuits against samurai families. In 1720, the state passed the Mutual Settlement Ordinance which relieved the samurai of their debts owed to Japanese merchants. However, it did not cover loans (often obtained illegally) taken from foreign merchants - most notably Dutchmen, Chinese, and a few Coreans. Lords and retainers had to cut costs and increase taxes to secretly pay back these debts, not drawing the attention of the Xogun. This increased the dissatisfaction of the peasantry and stalled important infrastructure projects.
Confiscation and oppression of domains
Several domains considered disobedient and corrupt - hiding rice, allowing foreign merchants, incompetent governance, et cetera - had segments of their territory reassigned or were outright abolished. This resulted in a large number of disgruntled rōnin (masterless samurai) across the country seeking revenge and new economic opportunities.
Horequi Coup
The domains of the cadet branches of the Tocugawa family - the Owari, Ki, and Mito - were valued at 1.6 million cocu. The current Xogun was from the Ki family. The Owari and Mito branches, embarrassed and dissatisfied with his rule, collaborated to overthrow him and install Tocugawa Muneharu of the Owari family as Xogun with Mito Confucianism as the state ideology.
In 1750, the Mito-Owari coalition successfully deposed Xogun Joximune. Joximune died shortly after. Xogun Muneharu declared and implemented the articles of his political manifesto, the Ontxi seijo. However, huge budget deficits and political opposition arose and decimated widespread efforts at reform. Four years later in 1754, he was assassinated with no male heir. His death is considered as the end of true Tocugawa rule. Despite his short rule, Muneharu’s ideas and policies were the basis for the establishment of modern Japan.
Maruoka-Odawara period: 1754–1809
Maruoca Castle and Odawara Castle, belonging to the Sacai and Sajama clans respectively, gave their name to this era, mimicking the naming of the Azutxi-Momojama period. The events of this timeframe have an abundance of foreign interventions which had disastrous consequences.
Meiwa Restoration
A series of disturbances plagued Japan after the diminution of xogunal power in the 1750s and 1760s. A riot broke out on Nacasendo highway due to high taxes, amassing 250,000 peasants. Several fires broke out in Edo and Osaca, while hordes of samurai and merchant guilds vied for supremacy. The Lord of Xinano-Nigita was overthrown and a peasant republic ruled the domain for several months.
Several samurai, lords, & scholars, dissatisfied with the current state of the nation, conspired with the powerful Emperor Momozono to gradually restore de facto imperial rule on the islands. The movement was supported by the proto-nationalist Mito School of Confucianism, the Comagawa martial arts school, and several merchant and peasant associations.
Several domains de jure recognized and revered imperial rule by 1759, yet de facto operated independently. The imperial court only had true power in the Three Cities (Osaca, Miaco, and Edo), which had newly appointed civilian administrations enacting policies in accordance with Mito Confucianism and the benevolent ideology of Tocugawa Muneharu. Imperial rule was nominally recognized until 1803, when the Sacai xogunate murdered the sitting Emperor.
Saçuma loses the Loetsjoe
A 1771 çunami devastated the Loetsjoe kingdom, an island monarchy subject to China and the Lord of Saçuma simultaneously. Several officials in Dutch Formosa privately encouraged interference and annexation of the Loetsjoe kingdom in order to prevent piracy (as many pirates sought refuge in Oquinawa), control key shipping lanes, and to control the sulfur trade. From 1772, Dutch ships began to obstruct Loetsjoean shipping lanes. During a Dutch embassy to the capital of Sjoeri in 1775, a Dutch official was forcibly installed in Jema County to ‘assist with reconstruction’ after the çunami.
The Dutch launched an invasion in 1779, first taking Jema County and the city of Ishigatsjie. By the end of the year, King Xo Boqu accepted an EIC protectorate. Many senior officials were ousted from their positions and were replaced by Loetsjoean traitors, Coreans, and Dutchmen. The sulfur-producing island of Torixima was annexed directly by Formosa. In 1783, the native Criminal Code was reformed and replaced with a legal system fusing Loetsjoean, Chinese, and Dutch law.
In response, the Saçuma domain launched expeditions against the Formosans over the next few decades, all of which failed to bring Loetsjoe back under their rule. The Saçuma had previously relied on the sugar industry in the Amami islands, trade route profits, and other forms of maritime business. By the end of the century, their annual revenue was 400,000 cocu - a 45% decrease from 1750. As a consequence, the Lords increased revenue by sponsoring Confucian institutes in Cagoxima and establishing tea and sweet potato plantations. A large number of samurai and peasants also illegally emigrated overseas and were employed by the Dutch East India Company.
In 1807, the Ximazu family of Saçuma would be assigned the Cumamoto lordship, which had previously belonged to the Hosocawa clan. Consequentially, the Ximazu now reigned over approximately half of Quiuxu. With their revenue totalling over 1,000,000 cocu, they became one of the most powerful domains in the new xogunate.
Lake Kusuri Ainu revolt
Ainu began fleeing south to Kunashir and the Apasiri area in 1770, when Russia began taking over fishing grounds in the northern Kurils. The sudden influx of Russian traders and the northern Ainu to Ezo created tensions on the island. The Maçumae clan, responsible for most of Ezo, alerted the officials in Edo of a possible Russian naval invasion. The economic and social strain put on the Ainu culminated in a revolt in 1773, starting in the lakeside village of Tescaca and fueled by 3,000 Ainu soldiers. Russian mercenaries were hired by Ainu chieftains, bringing with them European military techniques.
Eventually in 1775, the Tocugawa central administration decided to directly rule Ezo in place of indirect rule via the Maçumae clan. Thousands of Japanese soldiers contained the rebellion and the Russian mercenaries to the rural north of Ezo, massacring or expelling Ainu populations in the south. As the Maçumae lost their power, they started to look for allies elsewhere. They became friendly towards the Russians and their various Japanese allies - such as the rising Sacai clan.
Cansei Reunification
Sacai Tadamitxi, Lord of Obama and prominent member of the Sacai clan, rose to prominence as the Tairō in the imperial court in 1779. After the disaster that followed the Tenmei famine, several clans allied with the Sacai in order to reunify Japan. The Maçumae, Mito, Date, Sajama, Ximazu and Maçura - were the earliest to form an alliance with the Sacai by 1785, and would eventually become the new state’s fudai. Notably, Russian merchants and most Japanese Christian lords supported this coalition.
The Dutch, on the other hand, opposed the reunification of Japan and took measures to provide for their allies in Japan, such as the Uesugi, Maçudaira, most crucially the uber-wealthy Hosocawa clan. Hosocawa Toxiçune, of the Cumamoto lordship, became the archrival of Sacai Tadamitxi and claimed the position of Xogun for himself, based on the Hosocawa’s direct descent from Emperor Seiwa.
In 1795, the Netherlands was invaded by France in the Augustine Wars and subsequently lost their ability to project power in eastern Asia. Subsequently, the Sacai coalition hired Russian mercenaries, Yellow Sea pirates, and hordes of discontented rōnin to push for the unification of Japan under their rule. Several notable battles include the Battle of Tacaxima, the Second Siege of Nara, the Battle of Aracawa River, and the collective Battles of Hixu.
Eventually in 1808, the Sacai had established their influence over most of Japan. However, the Tocugawa clan still maintained power in Oxima after expelling the Maçumae clan from their historic territories. Northern Ezo was ruled by Ainu chiefs with small enclaves ruled by Japanese lords. Several fiefs in central and western Japan also held out, protecting their own territories as well as Desjima.
By 1809, the Sacai were able to establish order in the cities of Edo, Osaca, and Miaco. The Emperor had also recognized Sacai Tadamitxi as the new Xogun. The Tairō, rebranded in Western records as the ‘Chancellor of Japan’, was occupied by the Xogun’s cousin, Sacai Txikaçu.
Kumohama period: 1809–1895
The era’s name (meaning ‘cloud beach’) was taken from the coastal Unpin Castle, which belonged to the Lord of Obama of the Sacai clan. While Japan began to modernize during this period, the country was hampered by political unrest, economic strife, and foreign intervention.
Russian betrayal & Ainu separatism
The Odawara domain was still in a state of rebellion in 1809, being ruled by the Maçudaira-loyalist Oqubo clan. A Russian flotilla under Admiral Gunin Ermilov approached the Idzu peninsula in order to expel the Oqubo from the province. Russia had established a small post in Itō in 1744 exclusively for shipbuilding purposes. After the Oqubo samurai were expelled from Idzu, Admiral Ermilov did not leave the peninsula when the Xogun ordered him to. The Sacai clan were in debt to Russian merchants and had refused to pay them back instantaneously.
A few months later, the Imperial Russian Navy seized the ports of Maizuru and Texio as well, which they had been trading at since 1755. Naval battles broke out between the Japanese and Russian fleets, with the Japanese fleet eventually succumbing to Russian demands in 1815 with the Treaty of Sunpu. In 1824, the Russians officially stated their claim on the Sakhalin and Kuril Islands. In 1825, Japan established diplomatic relations with France.
In 1835, the Sacai military captured Hacodate and executed the Tocugawa Governor of Oxima, reinstating the semi-autonomous Maçumae government on the peninsula. The Sacai army established themselves as far north as Soratxi by 1837 when Russian troops declared their support for an independent Ainu state, pushing the Japanese back down to the Oxima peninsula. Diplomatic ties were cut with Russia soon after, and a brief crisis ensued until 1844 when tensions subsided. The Russian Succession Crisis in 1868 marked a turning point in Russian foreign policy. Two years later, the Russians annexed the Ainu state as a semi-autonomous entity.