History of Spain
Premodern History
Originally inhabited by Celts, Iberians and other-Roman peoples, the Iberian Peninsula was fully conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC, and the province of Hispania was established. Following the Romanization and Christianization of Hispania, the fall of the Western Roman Empire ushered the migration of the germanic Visigoths into Hispania, who formed the Visigothic Kingdom centered on Toledo. This lasted until the early eighth century, when most of the peninsula fell under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate.
Under Islamic rule, it became known as Al-Andalus, and through its existence it fragmented into smaller states called taifas and reunited again, most notably by the Caliphate of Cordoba, the Almohads and the Almoravids. In the north, several Christian kingdoms emerged from the remains of the Visigothic Kingdom in Asturias, chief among them Castile, Aragon, Navarre and Portugal. Over a period of seven centuries, these kingdoms would expand southward, repelling Islamic rule in Iberia, in a process later called the Reconquista.
Early Imperial Period (1492 - 1700)
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, respectively. 1478 saw the completion of the conquest of the Canary Islands and in 1492, the combined forces of Castile and Aragon captured the Emirate of Granada from its last ruler Muhammad XII, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule in Iberia.
The year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas, although Columbus remained convinced that he had reached the Orient. Large numbers of indigenous Americans died in battle against the Spaniards during the conquest, while many more died from various diseases. The Spanish settlement of the Americas started with the colonization of the Caribbean. It was followed by the conquest of powerful pre-Columbian polities in Central Mexico and the Pacific Coast of South America, and the establishment of viceroyalties in the two main areas of settlement, New Spain and Peru. Miscegenation was the rule between the native and the Spanish cultures and people. An expedition sponsored by the Spanish crown completed the first voyage around the world in human history, the Magellan-Elcano circumnavigation. The return route from the Philippines to Mexico made possible the Manila galleon trading route and the Spanish conquest of the Philippines.
The foundation and history of the Spanish Empire are intrinsically linked to that of the House of Habsburg. As a result of the marriage politics of the Catholic Monarchs, their Habsburg grandson Charles inherited in 1516 both Spanish thrones as Charles I of Castile and Aragon, solidifying the single monarchy of Spain.
Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over the Ottomans at Lepanto in 1571, and then after the setback of the Spanish Armada in 1588, in a series of victories against England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604. The 17th century was marked by conflict, with the continuation of the Dutch Revolt and the Thirty Years War. Spanish power in Europe declined in favor of the growing Bourbon France, although the colonization of the Americas continued.
Spanish Succession Crisis (1701)
The Partition Treaties
As the Habsburg king of Spain, Carlos II, was nearing his heirless death, the First Partition Treaty was signed by England, the Dutch Republic, and France to settle the succession, agreeing that on the death of Carlos II, Prince Joseph Ferdinand, son of the elector of Bavaria, should inherit Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, and the Spanish colonies. Spain’s Italian dependencies would be detached and partitioned between Austria (to be awarded the Duchy of Milan) and France (Naples and Sicily). However, this plan did not push through following Joseph Ferdinand’s death in 1699.
A second treaty, signed in 1669, by England and France and in March 1700 by the Dutch Republic, awarded Spain and the Spanish Netherlands and colonies to Karl VI of Austria, second son of the Holy Roman emperor Leopold I, and Naples, Sicily, and other Spanish territories in Italy to France. Leopold, however, refused to sign the treaty, demanding that Karl receive all the Spanish territories intact.
Habsburg Victory
Due to France’s negative prestige following their defeats at the hands of Britain and the Triple Alliance, Carlos II agreed to the second partition treaty, only on one condition: Spain must not be divided and all territory must go to Karl VI. However, once he was incapacitated due to his illness, under pressure from France, England and the Dutch Republic, Spain signed the treaty in 1700, and upon Carlos II’s death in 1701, Karl VI of Austria succeeded him as Carlos III, King of Spain. In order to appease his new subjects as well as his adversaries, the King would attempt to remodel and redefine Spain in the image of Habsburg Austria — a multiethnic empire consisting of various states (Castille, Aragon, Navarre, and Galicia), with their own unique institutions, united under one monarch and one faith.
Great Silesian War (1750 - 1755)
After resurrecting an old Brandenburg testamentary claim to Silesia and forming an alliance with France and other smaller German states, Prussia invaded Austrian Silesia in 1750. Bavaria, Saxony and Sweden had supported the Franco-Prussian Entente while Britain had supported its Austrian ally. Spain, having a Habsburg monarch, and territories in the low countries, soon became quickly involved in the war. The Dutch Republic was also attacked by the French due to their interests in the region. Prince Maurice's War was the North American theater of the Great Silesian War and was one of the largest colonial wars in North America, where the colonies of Britain, Spain, and the Dutch Republic were pitted against those of France and their native allies.
The war ended with a Franco-Prussian defeat and the signing of the Treaty of Vienna on 16 February 1755. Spain saw few successes in the American front of the war, and French forces even seized Santo Domingo. Elsewhere however, Spain made small gains, taking full control of the Principality of Andorra, which had been co-ruled by the French monarchs since medieval times, along with capturing the ports of Pondicherri and Chandernagor in India.
In the resulting Treaty of Andorra (1756) Spain recognised French control of Santo Domingo in exchange for Andorra, the Indian ports and the island of Santa Apolonia along with its dependencies. For Spain the war marked a turning point in its international relations with the Spanish empire being reoriented towards mutual cooperation with the British Empire, as opposed to the series of hostilities that marked the previous two centuries of their relationship. Additional expenses accrued in the war worsened the massive economic and debt crisis, which precipitated both the Argentine Purchase and the reform of administration throughout the Spanish Empire.
Argentine Purchase
In the aftermath of the great Silesian war and Treaty of Vienna (1755), the British empire offered to buy the Governorate of the Río de la Plata east of the Andes, including the Banda Oriental, which Spain disputed with Portugal, in return for a lump sum payment and forgiveness of debts incurred by the Spanish Crown during the war. The British motive for the purchase involves lack of opportunities for expansion in their North American holdings and a want to exert control over the important straits of Magellan. The massive economic and debt crisis, along with numerous problems combating widespread contraband activities in the region and incursions by the Portuguese compelled the Spanish Crown to agree to the terms sent by the British on August 19th 1756 and on December 1st the colony was transferred to British sovereignty.
Second Habsburg rule in Portugal (1771 - 1789)
In 1771 Queen Joana of Portugal died after giving birth to the heir to the Portuguese throne, Afonso. With no one in Portugal in a position to take the regency for the young Afonso, the old Habsburg king of Spain, Philip V, was recognized as regent of Portugal. Once again, Portugal was under the rule of a Spanish Habsburg more than a hundred and thirty years after the dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640.
Despite a significant part of the government being fearful of the possibility of Philip V appointing Spanish officials to their positions, this did happen, and both kingdoms and their administrations remained separate. Peace in Europe contributed to the stability of the regency, with Spanish and Portuguese foreign policies remaining without contention. The most notorious achievement of the second Habsburg period was the completion of the reconstruction of Lisbon in 1773 following the devastating earthquake. Philip V's rule as regent lasted until 1789, when Afonso reached his 18th birthday and was crowned King Afonso II.
During this period, Spain also attempted to reassert influence over its former Italian possessions, supporting the Sardinians in their war for independence against France, and the Zacco family in the struggle for Sicily with the ruling Notarbartolos. While their direct intervention in Sicily would be met with failure, it successfully brought Sardinia out of France's sphere of influence and into its own.
Spring of Nations (1835 - 1846)
Starting in the early 1830s, the Spanish and Portuguese Empires erupted into a wave of revolutions based upon liberalism, republicanism, and nationalism later known as the Spring of Nations. Some of the earliest of these revolutions were in the Iberian peninsula, with revolutionaries calling for the Spanish and Portuguese empires to reform their political systems, and some revolutionaries going as far as calling for the abolition of the monarchies.
Seville Uprising
In Seville, the center of Spanish commerce with the Americas and home of the House of Trade, urban workers and the petty bourgeoisie, inspired by the success of the revolution in Portugal began to revolt in 1835, demanding the abolition of the powerful guilds, the lessening of the trade and economic restrictions and the abolition of internal tariffs between the numerous kingdoms that comprised the Spanish Empire.
Revolutionaries stormed government offices and took over the city barracks. With the revolutionaries in control of the city, they declared the Kingdom of Seville abolished and established the Canton of Seville. A revolutionary council was formed that promptly attempted to garner support from nearby cities. This effort failed, and the Spanish army quickly surrounded the city and began a siege. After a month of siege, the army stormed the city, quickly crushing the disorganized and demoralized defenders. The council leaders were executed and the Canton was disbanded.
Despite the failure of the Seville Uprising, and the remaining unrest across the country being suppressed as well, it served as the first instance of republicanism in Spain, and would set the stage for the later communard and republican revolutions, and the ideals of the Spring of Nations spread to the American colonies, culminating in a series of mostly unsuccessful revolts in Puerto Rico, New Spain, and New Granada.
Revolutions in New Granada
In the Viceroyalty of New Granada, there was a growing dissatisfaction amongst local merchants and criollo elites, as well as amongst the lower classes who've become limited in socio-political advancement due to the restrictive Spanish casta system.
The Colombian Revolution started in 1836 with a series of liberal revolts in Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, and Maracaibo, which were brutally suppressed by Spanish forces. The heavy handed response to what had originally been simply calls for reform led to much resentment and increased support for the growing independence movement. In March of 1838, the Colombian Revolutionary Congress organized a militia and occupied the city of Medellín. By the end of 1839, the revolutionary congress was in control of most of Venezuela, Trinidad, the Colombian Pacific coast, and the Colombian highlands, with Spanish royalist forces being limited to the Atlantic coasts and the Ecuadorian highlands. In 1841 fighting slowed down in the Audiencia of Quito, with both sides unable to advance on the other. Additionally, international pressure started to favor the Colombian rebels, with the Dutch and French empires refusing to stop trading the insurgents.
In October of 1842, Spanish forces retreated from their last strongholds in Barranquilla and Cartagena. In December, Spanish and Colombian diplomats signed the Treaty of Medellín (1842). The Spanish recognized the independence of New Granada but retained sovereignty and control over Quito, with the region being reorganized under the authority of the viceroy of Peru.
Independence of Paraguay
During the 18th century Paraguay had gradually become a peripheral colony of the Spanish empire, especially after the sale of the Rio de la Plata and the Banda Oriental to the British in 1756. This led to a period of decreasing Spanish settlement and investment in Paraguay as well as increased self sufficiency in the colony. In 1775, after an edict by the Spanish crown, the Paraguayans revolted, establishing the first independent republic in the Americas, although it would be reconquered by Spanish forces in 1777.
Throughout the 1830's Paraguayan nationalists again started to agitate for independence. After the local Spanish army garrison in Asunción withdrew in 1839 to focus on the Colombian Revolution, Paraguayan republicans declared independence from the Spanish and formed the 2nd Paraguayan Republic. In 1842 after the Colombian revolution ended, the Spanish requested British help retake Paraguay but the British refused due to ongoing colonial wars in Asia as well as local Carolinan support for the Paraguayan republicans. In 1846, after two unsuccessful expeditions to reclaim Paraguay from Peru, the Spanish empire recognized the independence of Paraguay in the Treaty of Buenos Aires, which set the border at the Paraguay river.
Dutch-Spanish War (1850 - 1855)
The independence of Colombia and Paraguay was a heavy psychological blow to the Spanish Empire, shattering the belief that while minor colonies could be lost and gained, the Spanish Main would prevail. As such, the Spanish government felt they needed military victories in order to maintain their position among the great powers.
The ongoing Canton War provided a great opportunity to restrengthen their hold in mainland America and settle conflicting territorial claims in Tussenland and the Maluku islands. While the Netherlands was distracted with the Canton War against Britain & France, Spain declared a separate war against the Dutch Empire. Despite the lackluster state of the Spanish navy, advances into Dutch Tussenland forced the overwhelmed Dutch Empire to surrender in 1855. In the resulting treaty, the Dutch ceded a large portion of the Mississippi basin region to New Spain, and they were forced to release South Tussenland as an independent nation, effectively locking the Dutch out of the Gulf of Florida. In the East Indies, the Dutch ceded the northern Spice Islands to the Spanish.
The war greatly soured relations between the Dutch and New Spain, which lasted even after Mexican Independence in 1881, and led to the Dutch-Mexican War (1901-1903).
Spanish Expansion in South-East Asia (1804 - 1880s)
Captaincy-General of Timor
Ownership of the Timorese Islands had switched hands multiple times throughout the 17th to 19th centuries. By the 18th century, both the Portuguese and the Dutch had already established a presence in Timor, and had competing claims in the region. It was not long however until the Portuguese neglected their colonial effort in Timor, and eventually decided to sell their claims to the Spanish in 1804, to prevent it from falling under Dutch hands. In 1855, the Dutch would acknowledge Spanish rule after the Dutch-Spanish War (1850-1855), although disputes over the islands of Sumbawa and Lomboc would continue.
During Spanish rule, it was governed as a Captaincy-General under the viceroyalty of New Spain (1804-1872), and later, due to unrest in New Spain that would eventually lead to its independence, under the newly formed Viceroyalty of the Philippines (1872-1935). In 1910, the Spanish offered to purchase the islands of Sumbawa and Lomboc from the Dutch, backed by their existing claims on the island. The Treaty of Batavia was signed in 1911, and resulted in the formal handover of the islands to the Captaincy-General of Timor.
Viceroyalty of the Philippines
Administration of the Philippine islands had started to be considered a drain on the economy of Spain and New Spain by the mid-19th century. However, this perspective would change after the Dutch-Spanish War, with the acquisition of the Spice Islands and Papua, which led to the Philippines being officially separated from New Spain and was promoted to a Viceroyalty in 1856. The Viceroyalty of the Philippines was further expanded after the conquest of the Sultanates of Sulu (1888) and Maguindanao (1891), previously only under nominal Spanish rule.
With the weakened state of the Spanish monarchy in the aftermath of the Communard Wars in the 1870s, the Philippines were able to push harder for economic change then they ever were before, leading to Philippine ports being increasingly opened to world trade and its economy modernized.
Protectorates of Viet-Nam
Spain had long supported the Nguyen dynasty in the south of Viet-Nam against the Dutch backed Trinh dynasty. After the Canton War the Trinh lost their main supporters leading to the Nguyen consolidating power with Spanish support. Looking to increase their foothold in Asia, which at the time was considered their most profitable and prestigious colonial venture with the Spanish Americas increasingly being seen as chaotic and rebellious, in 1864 they forced the Dutch to cede the Port of Santa Maria in Tonquin to Spain.
Fearing British expansion after the Anglo-Burmese & Anglo-Acehese wars of the previous decade, the Vietnamese kingdom sought protection from the Spanish and in 1878 Tonquin & Annam became Spanish protectorates. Nguyễn Phúc Mạnh, the ruler of Tonquin, converted to Catholicism, and was baptized as Don Carlos in 1884. During the reign of Phúc Mạnh, the Spanish built churches and conducted missionary activity, leading to the sizable Catholic minority in the northern parts of Viet-Nam in the modern day.
Communard Spain (1875 - 1877)
New ideas of social reform called communardism had rocked France in the 1870s. Coming from France's intellectual circles, the concept of communardism would win over the French public and lead to the bloody murder of King Louis in 1873. The heir died shortly after due to a falling accident. With the Bourbon line dying out, the radical communard party Société des Amis de la République occupied the power vacuum, and established a revolutionary communard republic that attempted to spread their ideals to the rest of western Europe, leading to the invasion and annexation of the Belgic Duchy and the Franche Comté, a Spanish satellite.
Numerous members of the Société des Amis de la République crossed into Spain, where they met with leaders of the Sociedad de Comuneros (Society of Communards), the radical communard society of Spain, in Madrid. The Sociedad de Comuneros began plotting a coup against King Ferdinand VII of Spain, and was able to successfully overthrow the monarchy in 1875, establishing a short-lived communard republic in Spain. Ferdinand VII was forced to lead a government-in-exile in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. With the support of the British once again, the new but weak communard government of Spain was dismantled, and Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne. Despite this, the aftermath of the Communard Revolutions in Spain is directly linked to the independence of Peru and Mexico.
After the fall of the communard government, a new constitution was adopted. Spain would become a constitutional monarchy with the establishment of a new Cortes Generales as the legislature and the appointment of a Prime Minister. While many were hopeful this might lead to further democratization, it did not take long for the Spanish Crown to take advantage of the new constitution to undermine the various regional institutions in order to consolidate its power across the different entities that comprised the empire.
Collapse of Spanish America (1875 - 1894)
Peruvian-Spanish War (1875 - 1880)
During the Communard Wars, communard revolutionaries had occupied the majority of Spain, forcing the royal family and King Ferdinand VII to seek refuge in New Spain. While the king was staying in New Spain, he became interested in the colony's internal affairs. He instituted a series of reforms that sought to hispanicize New Spain's culture to a further degree and weakened the local elites' power in favor of giving greater control to the royal military and peninsular business elites in the king's inner circle. This increased tension between Spanish authorities and New Spain's population across social classes. This move raised tensions on the viceroyalty, and that same feeling would reach Peru.
In June of 1874, the Independent Council of Peru was formed. Led by viceroy José Mateo Pérez Avilés, it consisted of most of the local elites and non-peninsular military. For about a year, the council secretly discussed the path for independence and the future of the country. On May 16th of 1875, viceroy Avilés declared Peruvian independence. In the following month, most of the inner viceroyalty followed, with loyalist forces controlling only the coastlines. By 1880, Spain was in a terrible economic situation, the mainland was devastated by war, and adding to this, the feeling of New Spain soon revolting, which was considered to be far more valuable than Peru, worried the Crown. Too exhausted to continue fighting, Spain asked for peace on April 20th 1880, recognizing it officially in February 1881. On March 4th 1881, viceroy Avilés was declared king of Peru.
Mexican Independence War (1881 - 1884)
Over the 19th century, New Spain had become economically self-sufficient, while Spain had been increasingly dependent on New Spain's resources to fund their empire, leading to a period of increased dissatisfaction of local elites and businessmen starting from the 1860s. These tensions soon came to a boiling point after King Ferdinand VII was ousted by the Communard Wars and forced to flee to New Spain, where he quickly became involved in local affairs, attempting to increase the power of the peninsular elites and the Crown.
When the King and the royal family returned to Spain in 1878 following the end of the Communard Wars, the Viceroy of New Spain, Jorge González de Güemes y Horcasitas, started to consolidate support within the New Spanish elite and amongst local military officers to declare independence. In early 1881, the King caught wind of the Viceroy's sedition and ordered the Spanish royal army to arrest him and sent another viceroy to replace him. When the new viceroy arrived in New Spain, he was arrested by González and the local army, who refused the King's orders and pledged loyalty to González. The following day, on Feb 3rd, 1881 González declared himself emperor of an independent Mexico.
Learning González's declaration of a Mexican Empire, the King was furious and pledged to retake the colony, leading to the Mexican Independence Crisis. However, the Communard Wars had left the Iberian peninsula devastated, and small pockets of communard resistance continued in the countryside.
Additionally, Spain had borrowed money from Genoese and British banks to rebuild after the war but defaulted on the payments within a year, which led to an economic crisis. As such, retaking New Spain and its abundant resources became of vital importance.
The Spanish army set out several expeditions to retake Mexico in late 1881 and again in 1882, but they were repelled by the newly formed Mexican army each time. With a mounting economic crisis, guerilla fighting in the nation, and the inability to militarily take back New Spain, the Spanish crown recognized the Mexican Empire in 1884.
Cuban Revolt (1885 - 1894)
After the loss of Peru and Mexico, in an attempt to placate independence groups, in 1883 the Spanish Crown unilaterally granted Cuba, along with Florida and Puerto Rico, Royal Dominion status, with a new position of governor general for the semi-autonomous Dominions. However, in Cuba this did very little to pacify the revolutionary sentiment, as the Spanish still held near complete control over Cuban plantations and the promises of greater autonomy much like Puerto Rico had not been kept due to Cuba's greater economic importance.
The Cuban war for independence began in 1885 with a series of rural uprisings which then quickly turned to guerilla warfare as Cuban rebels used hit and run tactics to wear down Spanish forces. It didn't take long for the Cuban elite to join the rebels, seeing an opportunity to free themselves from zealous Spanish oversight. With support from Britain, which started to covertly arm the Cuban rebels, in 1894 Spanish forces were finally expelled from the country after 9 years of grueling warfare. The first republic of Cuba was then proclaimed with British backing, although Spain would refuse to recognise the new republic until the late 1920s.
Katipunan Insurrection (1896 - 1897)
Philippine revolutionaries were inspired by the Communard Revolutions that overthrew the Habsburg monarchy and triggered the independence of Peru and Mexico, and talks of revolution began to spread. Books like Crisostomo Ibarra´s No me toques (1887) and El Filibusterismo (1891) criticizing the declining Spanish rule in the Philippines would inspire, along with the Communard Revolution, and Mexico's War of Independence, Tagalog Revolutionary Mayo Pag-Asato create the revolutionary organization Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan, simply known as the Katipunan. The Katipunan would reach out to the Corean and Mexican Governments for funding and support which would allow them to spread out not only in the Philippine Islands but also throughout the Moluccas, Papua, and even Vietnam.
However, the Katipunan was far from being fully ready when the organization was exposed to the Spanish in 1896 by one of its disgruntled members. Mayo would launch his revolt ahead of what had originally been planned, seizing the town of San Juan Del Monte from Spanish forces. Other provinces would soon join the revolution. Mayo's own campaign would be cut short in only a week, however, as after a disastrous defeat in Laguna he would be captured by Spanish loyalists and executed. After his death, Jacinto, the Katipunan's vice supremo, would take the reins of the revolution. Despite the numerous foreign backers, the revolutionaries were caught unprepared for open conflict, and with numerous Spanish reinforcements returning from failed expeditions against Peru, Mexico and Cuba, the rebels were soon on the back foot, as the Spanish captured most rebel strongholds and retook large swathes of the countryside.
Treaty of Malolos
With Spain now beginning to gain the upper hand, the revolutionaries agreed to a ceasefire. In the 1898 Treaty of Malolos the revolutionary leadership left for exile in China with allowances from the Spanish Government under the agreement that Spain would introduce most of the reforms the revolutionaries listed, but when Spain failed to implement the reforms, some remaining Katipunan loyalists would continue fighting the Spanish.
Fighting would drag on until 1916, when the last revolutionary leaders were finally captured and executed. Despite the Spanish victory, these revolts would indirectly pressure the Spanish to democratize their rule, and the local councils that emerged would be instrumental in the foundation of the Philippine Republic.
Moroccan Protectorate & North African wars (1892 - 1920s)
In the second half of the 19th century the Dilaite Dynasty of Morocco began a series of campaigns aimed at expanding the kingdom and asserting their rule over its numerous tributaries, with the aim of securing its position in the face of growing European interests in Africa. The cost of these campaigns left Morocco at the edge of bankruptcy, and the government struggled to maintain any sense of order in the newly acquired regions, many of which came under the control of their local governors, acting as independent chieftains. From the 1870s the Moroccan state increasingly fell under Spanish influence. Morocco had long been the target of Spanish colonial ambitions, as the Spanish desired control of both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar. Seeing the internal instability of Morocco as an opportunity, in 1892 the Spanish presented an offer to the Dilaite Sultan. Facing unrest at home and open revolt in the recently conquered territories, the Sultan agreed, signing a treaty recognizing Morocco as a Spanish protectorate.
In exchange for a series of economic and territorial concessions, Spain would aid in the expansion and pacification of the borderlands of Morocco. This was greatly unpopular in Spain, and resentment began to grow as much of the Spanish working class had no desire to be sent to fight Morocco over what were seen as barren wastelands. Despite opposition, the Spanish Army along with Moroccan regulars would embark on a two decade long colonial conflict against local tribes, nomadic confederations and Saharan emirates like Aderer and El Hodh. By the early 1920s all of Morocco had been pacified, and the modern day Moroccan borders had been established.
The Spanish had hoped to reintroduce Christianity to Morocco, motivated by the romantic ideal of an ancient Christian romano-berber Kingdom of Mauritania. As part of this effort they would settle thousands of Spaniards, Italians and Loyalists fleeing from the Americas in Morocco, forming large settlement areas around the Spanish possessions on the Moroccan coast. While this would never come to pass, it would result in a unique European minority in northern Morocco. The Shephardic Jews and Andalusian families of Rabat, Sale & Tangiers would be favored by the Spanish, gaining a lot of power and wealth, more than they had in the 17th century, the latter forming the upper echelons of Moroccan society alongside the Shurafa (noble families descended from the Prophet Muhammad) and the Fassi (aristocrats from Fes), which presided over an indistinguishable mix of Arab, Berber, with a little European and Jewish minority.
Papal Exile in Spain (1909)
In 1903, food shortages sparked riots across the Papal States. Demonstrations by citizens, peasants, and workers increasingly grew violent as the economic situation worsened,leading to the Venetian army invading the Papal States in 1908 due to security concerns, occupying the Adriatic provinces. In the following weeks, the food riots became a famine, and civil unrest became a rebellion as radicals advocated for the abolition of the State of the Church and its replacement with a democratic republic. In August of 1908, Pope Boniface X was assassinated, consequently triggering waves of violence across the country. As a result, the Roman Curia, several cardinals, and members of the Papal nobility fled to Spain, where they were welcomed by King Ferdinand VIII.
In 1909, the Roman Curia, led by the newly elected Pope Pope Callixtus IV and King Ferdinand VIII signed the Treaty of Pontevedra, allocating several properties in Santiago de Compostela to the Holy See, including the Cathedral of Santiago, Gelmírez Palace, and Fonseca Palace, forming what is known as Terra de Santiago. The treaty however was made as a temporary solution, with many in the Roman Curia hoping that the Latin Republic would eventually collapse and Austrian forces would restore the State of the Church after the Alps War (1911-1912), but due to the indecisive end of the conflict this never came to be. As such, the treaty never fully defined the sovereignty and independence of the Holy See, leading to it being variously classified as having no sovereignty, to being an independent non-state actor, to being a sovereign state.
Regardless of its undefined status, the Holy See continued to operate after the abolition of the Spanish monarchy, with the new republican government opting to maintain the treaty, although they did officially recognize the Latin Republic. Despite this point of contention, Spain remains faithfully Catholic and to this day the Holy See continues to act as an independent entity.
Everglades War & Floridan Independence (1923 - 1927)
As with most Spanish colonies at the end of the 19th century, class and ethnic tensions had been present in Spanish Florida, with western Floridians feeling increasingly marginalized by the consolidated economic and political power of the elites of San Agustin. These tensions came to a head after the European Economic Crisis (1922-1928), where many Floridans were forced to sell their land holdings and sharecropping contracts to wealthy northeastern North American businessmen. This, combined with decreased global prices for cotton and increased food import prices, led to a sharp increase in local food prices and a growing political discontent amongst the poor.
This discontent came to a head after a bread riot in Tahensa, which in turn led to a rebellion in the city against Spanish and Dominion forces. The rebellion quickly spread into the countryside of western Florida where sharecroppers threw down their tools and took up arms against the Spanish. At this point Floridan rebels weren't actively republican, but instead were focused on improving their quality of life and with issues of economics and labor relations. The Spanish Dominion government in San Agustin however completely rejected their demands and struck back at the rebels with increasing hostility. By the winter of 1923 the rebellion had spread to central Florida and the peninsula. Fearing that the Dominion didn't have the ability to effectively deal with the rebels, the Spanish Crown reinstated conscription and sent troops to help suppress the rebellion. During the next year of fighting the rebels became increasingly a guerilla force that sought to wage a protracted war of attrition using hit and run tactics, their popularity with the countryfolk and knowledge of the local terrain to great effect. In 1925, fearing Mexican involvement, the government of New Netherland declared support for the Spanish Dominion government and started to give support in the form of aerial scouting and economic funding to the Spanish war effort. Despite New Netherland support, fighting became increasingly brutal, with alarming numbers of casualties, as the Spanish became increasingly desperate to maintain their last hold on the American mainland.
After the fall of the historic port city of Santa Cruz to the rebels on March 9th 1927, the government of New Netherland turned against the war and began withdrawing its forces. This forced the Spanish government to call up reserve troops to be sent to Florida. In response, massive protests erupted across the country, and the republicans called for a general strike. On March 23, troops on the port of Cadiz refused to board ships headed to Florida and mutinied, joining protesting workers. The Guardia Real would put down the revolt after a week of street fighting, which resulted in 204 civilian casualties, earning it the name of the Semana Trágica (Tragic Week). Acknowledging defeat, after weeks of negotiation, the Spanish government agreed to withdraw and recognise Floridan independence on April 12. Likewise, they finally recognised the Cuban Republic, which had been practically independent since 1894.
Spanish Republic & Decolonization (1928 - 1935)
Republicanism in Spain
During the 20th century the Spanish monarchy increasingly became a figurehead for the country's numerous problems. The loss of the American colonies, a stagnating economy, seemingly pointless military endeavors and a belief that Spain was being left behind the rest of Europe led to the need for the Spanish Monarchy becoming a point of national debate.
The volatile situation reached its climax after the loss of Florida in 1927. By that point Spain had been in a state of war on and off for over 50 years, with only small intervals of peace. This had taken a huge toll on the nation, with a stagnating economy and a demoralized population that grew increasingly disillusioned with the idea of maintaining an empire, which had been firmly associated with the horrendous death toll of the Spanish-Floridan War.
In the face of overwhelming pressure, the government had promised a series of reforms to both the peninsular and colonial administrations, however after more than a year they failed to materialize. On 16 September 1928, republican and reformist parties and groups called for a general strike, disappointed with the lack of change. Spanish industry grinded to a halt, and after the events of the Semana Trágica the military could not be counted on to disperse protestors. As the conservative government collapsed, king Charles V called for general elections, announcing that, in a first, republican parties would be allowed to run in a bid to introduce reforms. In the public perception however, this turned the general elections into a plebiscite of the monarchy.
In the December 18 elections, an alliance of republican parties led by the Liga Republicana, won a landslide victory. Celebrations and anti-monarchical rallies began in most major cities like Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao and Malaga, leading to the proclamation of a republic, formally declared the following day by the new Provisional Government of the Republic. The young king Charles V was advised to flee to Morocco to establish a government in exile, but instead chose to leave for exile in Portugal, denouncing any violent attempts to restore the monarchy.
The new republican government quickly began a series of reforms aimed at dismantling the centuries-old Habsburg monarchy. Part of this process was the restructuring of the numerous kingdoms and dominions within Spain in favor of a new streamlined republican system. Central to this was the revival of the idea of Plurinacionalismo, a concept originally brought to Spain from Austria by Charles III in the early 18th century, which views Spain as a "nation of nations", a pan-national project formed by Castilians, Catalans, Galicians and Basques, all of whom form part of the Spanish national identity.
As such, the naciones were based around the old Christian kingdoms and the variety of unique local customs, laws, languages that developed in each of them, and the republican government pushed the idea of coexisting historical identities (Castilian, Aragonese/Catalan, Navarrese/Basque and Galician) with a united Spanish nationality.
Decolonization of the Spanish Empire (1929-1935)
In 1929 the Spanish government announced its intentions to fully decolonize in order to shift efforts of development domestically. Local assemblies and provisional governments are organized in its overseas holdings to prepare all colonies for the path towards independence. Referendums were to be held in the colonies, offering the local assemblies the following options:
- Full Independence (Puerto Rico, Philippines, Viet-Nam, Timor)
- Become semi-autonomous Dependent Territories of Spain (Spanish Guinea, Pondicherri, Chandernagor, Santa Apolonia)
Dependent Territories were mostly deemed too small and undeveloped for self governance at the time, so they would continue to be supervised by the Spanish government until they could be granted full independence, incorporated into larger states via popular vote, or be fully integrated into Spain as overseas territories.
The colonies that chose complete independence were given a five-year transitionary period, in which the local administrative apparatus was being prepared for independence. and a constitution is to be drafted.
Spain began renegotiating with the colonial authorities of the Moroccan Protectorate, which culminated in the signing of the Ceuta Accords, resulting in the termination of the protectorate over Morocco, and the newly independent Kingdom of Morocco was admitted to La Hispanidad on March 5, 1933. As part of the treaty, the city of Ceuta, originally ceded to Morocco at the start of the protectorate, was returned back to Spain.
In the following decades, the remaining Spanish dependencies would either gain independence or be integrated into other states :
- In 1947 the Jambu Republic began negotiations for a peaceful handover of the city of Chandernagor. Looking to maintain good relations, it would be officially ceded at the end of the year.
- After the independence of Iorubaland in 1961, calls for the withdrawal of Spanish administrators and union with Iourubaland began in Spanish Guinea, leading to its handover to Iorubaland in 1965.
- After a referendum in 1966, the Dependency of Santa Apolonia was officially integrated into Spain, becoming an autonomous overseas Territory, with its own local government.
- The city of Pondicherri would be annexed by the Carnatic following the Spanish withdrawal during the volatile Pondicherri Crisis (1965–1973).
La Hispanidad
As part of independence talks, in 1930 Puerto Rico and Spain signed a series of bilateral agreements intended to increase economic and cultural cooperation between the two states. The provisional governments and assemblies set up to prepare the other colonies for independence expressed interest in entering such a pact with Spain. As a result, the Spanish Republic revisited and reworked the guidelines and terms on their agreement with Puerto Rico, to be more inclusive to the other colonies.
The framework for an intergovernmental organization was drafted and ratified in January 1932 by representatives of the colonies and the Spanish Republic, resulting in the creation of La Hispanidad. Headquartered in Madrid, La Hispanidad is an intergovernmental organization which aims to promote cultural and economic ties among member states and to preserve and celebrate the shared heritage of the Spanish-speaking world. The new organization included Spain, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Timor, Viet-Nam and immediately after Moroccan independence in 1933, they were also admitted into La Hispanidad.
