Spring of Nations
| The Spring of Nations | |||||||
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 Portuguese troops and revolutionaries battle in the streets of Lisbon | |||||||
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| People of Portugal, Brasil, Spain, New Granada, New Spain, Puerto Rico, and others | |||||||
The Spring of Nations (Spanish: Primavera de las Naciones; Portuguese: Primavera das Nações) were a series of revolutions based upon liberalism, republicanism, and nationalism that affected both the Spanish and Portuguese Empires from the mid 1830s.
Starting in 1834 with a revolt in Lisbon, unrest quickly spread to the rest of Portugal, Spain and to the colonies in America. While individual revolutions lacked coordination or cooperation, they mostly originated from similar causes such as lack of political representation, widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership and a desire for greater economic rights.
The Spring of Nations is considered the birth of nationalism in the previously monolithic Spanish and Portuguese Empires, and resulted in the independence of several new republics, an increase in national awareness across the Americas and attempts at political reform across the Spanish and Portuguese Empires.
Background
Absolutism in Portugal and Spain
The Iberian Peninsula had been left mostly untouched by the French Revolution and the ensuing Augustine Wars, which had reshaped the political climate of Europe.
The revolution had brought liberal and democratic ideas, freedom of the press, the end of guilds and serfdom, along with many economic freedoms and agrarian and legal reforms. Despite antagonism to the revolution, most European countries had adopted some of the reforms but in the Iberian Peninsula, the traditionally absolutist monarchies of Portugal and Spain continued their conservative policies.
Despite this, with growing urbanization and industrialization, intellectuals traveling across Europe eventually brought ideas of social and political reform to Spain and Portugal, and discontent among the lower and middle class grew.
In Portugal the wealthy members of the bourgeoisie had monetary power and the soldiers possessed military power but lacked political representation, leading to the two groups forming an alliance in order to dismantle the status quo, and in Spain the middle class rallied against the feudal customs system dividing the country and restricting trade with the Americas, which stifled the growth of industry and was blamed on the monarchy, leading to the first instance of republicanism in Spain, while intellectuals in its American colonies sought instead to sever their links to Spain.
Sequence of events
Portuguese Constitutional Revolution (1834-1835)
The Spring of Nations began in early 1834 with a revolt in Lisbon, which quickly spread to several other Portuguese cities. Rioters, supported by the middle class, demanded active suffrage, freedom of the press and limitations on the role of the Catholic Church in society and government. The Portuguese Crown sent troops to suppress the revolts, but in many instances thousand soldiers disobeyed orders, marching alongside them, and taking over government offices. Fearing a civil war if more troops were called for a direct confrontation with the revolutionaries, the Portuguese Crown relented and in May, agreed to begin drafting a constitution.
After a year of negotiation, the new constitution was completed. It included the following terms;
- The Chancellor becomes the head of government, sharing executive powers with the monarch
- The independence of the judiciary and legislature and the legal codification of all Portuguese laws
- Suffrage granted to all literate males over 20 years old
- Limitations on the role of the Catholic Church in society and government
Seville Uprising (1835)
News of the revolts in Portugal quickly spread to Spain, and unrest began in different parts of the country. In Seville, the center of Spanish commerce with the Americas and home of the House of Trade, urban workers and the petty bourgeoisie, inspired by the success of the revolution in Portugal began to revolt, demanding the abolition of the powerful guilds, the lessening of the trade and economic restrictions and the abolition of internal tariffs between the numerous kingdoms that comprised the Spanish Empire.
Revolutionaries stormed government offices and took over the city barracks. With the revolutionaries in control of the city, they declared the Kingdom of Seville abolished and established the Canton of Seville. A revolutionary council was formed that promptly attempted to garner support from nearby cities. This effort failed, and the Spanish army quickly surrounded the city and began a siege. After a month of siege, the army stormed the city, quickly crushing the disorganized and demoralized defenders. The council leaders were executed and the Canton was disbanded.
Despite the failure of the Seville Uprising, and the remaining unrest across the country being suppressed as well, it served as the first instance of republicanism in Spain, and would set the stage for the later communard and republican revolutions.
Bahian War of Independence (1835-1845)
After the constitution in Portugal was drafted, unrest began in its South American colonies over its implementation. Once it was clear that the reforms were intended for the peninsular kingdom, a clique of freed slaves and intellectuals began an insurrection in the Capitancy of Bahia, demanding the abolition of slavery and economic reform. There had been numerous slave revolts since the 1800, but this one differed in scale and counted with the support of the merchants and soldiers, which soon joined the rebellion as well.
The rebellion quickly spread through Reconcavo and soon spread to rural areas. The Bahia Republic was proclaimed by a coalition of slaves, freed slaves, merchants, and soldiers by the end of the year. In 1836, in response to the failure of local forces to control the rebellion, reinforcements were sent directly from Portugal to deal with the situation. The insurgents were not able to resist and as a last resort, they fled to rural quilombos and adopted guerrilla tactics. After several years of fighting, the war had become stationary by 1843. In that year, the southernmost captaincy of Brasil also rebelled, forcing Portuguese forces to focus on a new front, moreover, at that time there was a feeling that victory had already been secured in the north, which made the monarchist forces reduce concern for the region, giving the Bahians an advantage. Now with two wars to deal with and the Bahians receiving support from the newly independent Colombia, the war became very costly for Portugal. In 1845 a peace treaty was signed in Salvador confirming the newly sovereign Bahia Republic.
Colombian Revolution (1836-1842)
In the Viceroyalty of New Granada, there was a growing dissatisfaction amongst local merchants and criollo elites, as well as amongst the lower classes who've become limited in socio-political advancement due to the restrictive Spanish casta system.
The Colombian Revolution started in 1836 with a series of liberal revolts in Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, and Maracaibo, which were brutally suppressed by Spanish forces. The heavy handed response to what had originally been simply calls for reform led to much resentment and increased support for the growing independence movement. In March of 1838, the Colombian Revolutionary Congress organized a militia and occupied the city of Medellín.
By the end of 1839, the revolutionary congress was in control of most of Venezuela, Trinidad, the Colombian Pacific coast, and the Colombian highlands, with Spanish royalist forces being limited to the Atlantic coasts and the Ecuadorian highlands. In 1841 fighting slowed down in the Audiencia of Quito, with both sides unable to advance on the other. Additionally, international pressure started to favor the Colombian rebels, with the Dutch and French empires refusing to stop trading the insurgents.
In October of 1842, Spanish forces retreated from their last strongholds in Barranquilla and Cartagena. In December, Spanish and Colombian diplomats signed the Treaty of Medellín. The Spanish recognized the independence of New Granada but retained sovereignty and control over Quito, with the region being reorganized under the authority of the viceroy of Peru.
New Spain Peasants' Revolt (1837)
News of the revolutions in peninsular Spain and Colombia soon reached New Spain, which caused panic among the ruling elites of the Viceroyalty. It didn't take long for the liberal ideas to spread through the southern provinces, and dissatisfaction with the rulers in Ciudad de Mexico along with the desire for land reform and redistribution appealed to the lower, mostly rural classes. Small revolts appeared across the countryside, with towns and villages refusing government decrees and chasing away officials. The viceregal government in Ciudad de Mexico responded by sending the army to suppress the rebels. Despite encountering some small guerrilla resistance, most towns surrendered upon spotting the marching army.
The Peasants War is often overshadowed by New Spain's conquest of the Boer Republics. The revolt failed due to a lack of coordination between insurgent groups and a lack of support from the local elites, who still benefited from the oligarchic system and feared a break in the status quo.
The Vila Rica Conspiracy (1837-1838)
By 1837, the Portuguese colony of Brasil was already in a broken state, with only Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais without any major unrest. However, in February 1837, a group of ten mine owners of the town of Vila Rica, the capital of the Captaincy of Minas Gerais, gathered to plan a way to create an independent republic in Minas. Led by Manuel Joaquim Xavier, who had traveled to New Netherland, they hoped to establish a new republic modeled on it, with Manuel taking the title of Estatutário (Portuguese for Stadtholder).
The plan developed from february to late march, consisted in killing the captaincy president, Álvaro Baltasar, during Easter. The first phase of the plan went successful, and the captaincy president was killed along with his wife by mercenaries once the couple got home. Chaos shortly took the capital, and on April 13th, 1837, the Republic of Minas was proclaimed.
The country would only last 9 months. Due to its geographic isolation, and conflicts with the Bahian rebels in the north because of territorial claims, the republic was completely crushed by the Portuguese forces in January of 1838. Manuel and his colleagues were arrested and publicly executed on the 24th. After the failed Vila Rica Conspiracy, Brasil would only see another large-scale attempt of political reform in the early 20th century.
Puerto Rican Revolt (1839-1840)
In Puerto Rico, closely linked to Spain through its main trade routes, liberal ideas quickly reached the colony, leading to the formation of the Sociedad por la Liberación del Pueblo de Puerto Rico or commonly known as Los Libertadores, which sought to drive out the Spanish Crown and establish an independent republic.
With Spanish authorities primarily occupied with the Colombian revolution, in spring of 1839 Los Libertadores occupied the island of Vieques and attempted to muster an army to take the city San Juan to no avail. They instead attempted to start another revolution in the southern coast of Puerto Rico centered around Ponce and Peñuelas. The leader of the rebels Miguel López de Vigo declared the Republic of Puerto Rico that summer in Ponce. Throughout the rebellion the rebels were plagued by infighting and tried to take San Juan twice in the winter of 1839, but without much popular support they were unsuccessful. In the spring of 1840 the Spanish navy took the island of Vieques and Ponce and by the beginning of the summer the rebel army was either dispersed or captured.
Second Paraguayan War (1839-1846)
During the 18th century Paraguay had gradually become a peripheral colony of the Spanish empire, especially after the sale of the Rio de la Plata and the Banda Oriental to the British in 1756. This led to a period of decreasing Spanish settlement and investment in Paraguay as well as increased self sufficiency in the colony. In 1775, after an edict by the Spanish crown, the Paraguayans revolted, establishing the first independent republic in the Americas, although it would be reconquered by Spanish forces in 1777.
Throughout the 1830's Paraguayan nationalists again started to agitate for independence. After the local Spanish army garrison in Asunción withdrew in 1839 to focus on the Colombian Revolution, Paraguayan republicans declared independence from the Spanish and formed the 2nd Paraguayan Republic. In 1842 after the Colombian revolution ended, the Spanish requested British help retake Paraguay but the British refused due to ongoing colonial wars in Asia as well as local Carolinan support for the Paraguayan republicans. In 1846, after two unsuccessful expeditions to reclaim Paraguay from Peru, the Spanish empire recognized the independence of Paraguay in the Treaty of Buenos Aires, which set the border at the Paraguay river.
Riograndense War of Independence (1843-1846)
Inspired by the Bahian War of Independence, the southernmost Captaincy of Rio Grande started its own rebellion against the Portuguese crown. The rebels were liberals, large landowners, local military personnel, and former slaves, motivated by the lack of representation, the closed economy of the colony, and high taxation. In the case of the former slaves, freedom was promised to those who chose to fight along.
After the success in defeating the local defense forces, the Riograndense Republic was proclaimed and a provisional capital in the town of Caçapava was established. News of the newly proclaimed nation spread across to the British colony of Carolina and newly proclaimed Paraguay, which at the time was fighting its own war of independence against the Spanish. This encouraged many Hispanic gauchos, known as well as Carolinos, to volunteer themselves to the Riograndense cause. In exchange for help, the country would grant those men and their families citizenship.
In 1844, Paraguay recognized the independence of the Riograndense Republic, becoming the first country in the world to do so. In the same year, the Paraguayan government permitted the trafficking of volunteers and smuggled weapons through its borders to assist its new neighbor. By 1846, most towns and villages had either been conquered or had joined the republic willingly, with only the town of Rio Grande still under Portuguese control. Later that year, a peace treaty was signed.
Other Revolutions
Aside from the major revolutions, smaller scale revolts took place all across Spanish and Portuguese America.
From 1836 to 1838, the Captaincy of Pernmabuco, along other northeastern captaincies proclaimed the short-lived Caatinga Republic and only controlled a few urban centers before being reconquered by the Portuguese. In the Captaincy of Maranhão and Piauí, the revolutionary government lasted only a few months, the same in Grão-Pará.
There was little unrest in Florida due to the lack of urban development or a strong middle class, while in Peru the cities of Lima and Arequipa had some riots started by sailors and dock workers demanding better wages, but these were easily suppressed.
Aftermath
The Spring of Nations is remembered as the springtime of hope, when newly emerging nationalities in Spanish and Portuguese America rejected the old absolutist empires, showing how badly both empires were in need of reform. The Spring of Nations resulted in the independence of Colombia, Paraguay, Bahia and the Riograndense Republic, as well as set the groundwork for the full collapse of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires in the 1870s.
The Spanish Empire was able to crush most revolts, with the ruling elites enacting little reforms, save the abolition of slavery in 1842, primarily aimed at preventing another revolt in Puerto Rico or Cuba. Spain would continue as an absolute monarchy until the Communard revolution in 1875, when the first Spanish constitution was finally drafted.
The Portuguese Crown was forced to become a constitutional monarchy, which in the end prevented it from falling like the Spanish one would a century later. Despite this, the failure to implement reforms in the South American colony led to its eventual collapse, leaving only a rump state in Brasil, which the Portuguese Crown was forced to elevate to a dual monarchy to prevent its separation.
