History of the Netherlands
The history of the Netherlands is a history of seafaring people living in the lowland river delta on the North Sea in northwestern Europe. It is a history of a people that took their land from the sea, a people that pushed the boundaries of exploration and a people that sometimes went against the odds. In the modern day, what is culturally defined as “Nederlander” or Batavi is a complex patchwork of those of Dutch/Batavi descent, those living in its former colonies or those living within the Kingdom. A common saying tho remains across Europe it is a saying that has survived centuries;
“God created the world but the Dutch created the Netherlands”
Eighty years war
The Dutch War for Independence from Spain is frequently called the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648). The first fifty years (1568 through 1618) were a war uniquely between Spain and the Netherlands. During the last thirty years (1618–1648) the conflict between Spain and the Netherlands was submerged in the general European War that became known as the Thirty Years' War. The seven rebellious provinces of the Netherlands were eventually united by the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and formed the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (also known as the "United Provinces"). The Act of Abjuration or Plakkaat van Verlatinghe was signed on 26 July 1581, and was the formal declaration of independence of the northern Low Countries from the Spanish king.
William of Orange (Slot Dillenburg, 24 April 1533 – Delft, 10 July 1584), the founder of the Dutch royal family, led the Dutch during the first part of the war, following the death of Egmont and Horn in 1568. The very first years were a success for the Spanish troops. However, the Dutch countered subsequent sieges in Holland. In November and December 1572, all the citizens of Zutphen and Naarden were slaughtered by the Spanish. From 11 December that year the city of Haarlem was besieged, holding out for seven months until 13 July 1573. Oudewater was conquered by the Spanish on 7 August 1575, and most of its inhabitants were killed. Maastricht was besieged, sacked and destroyed twice in succession (in 1576 and 1579) by the Spanish.
In a war composed mostly of sieges rather than battles, Governor-General Alexander Farnese proved his mettle. His strategy was to offer generous terms for the surrender of a city: there would be no more massacres or looting; historic urban privileges were retained; there was a full pardon and amnesty; return to the Catholic Church would be gradual. The conservative Catholics in the south and east supported the Spanish. Farnese recaptured Antwerp and nearly all of what became Belgium. Most of the Dutch-speaking territory in the Netherlands was taken from Spain, but not in Flanders, which to this day remains part of Belgium. Flanders was the most radical anti-Spanish territory. Many Flemish fled to Holland, among them half of the population of Antwerp, 3/4 of Bruges and Ghent and the entire population of Nieuwpoort, Dunkerque and countryside. His successful campaign gave the Catholics control of the lower half of the Low Countries, and was part of the Catholic Counter-Reformation.
The war dragged on for another half century, but the main fighting was over. The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, confirmed the independence of the United Provinces from Spain. The Dutch people started to develop a national identity since the 15th century, but they officially remained a part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1648. National identity was mainly formed by the province people came from. Holland was the most important province by far.
The Catholics in the Netherlands were an outlawed minority that had been suppressed by the Calvinists. After 1572, however, they made a striking comeback (also as part of the Catholic Counter-Reformation), setting up seminaries, reforming their Church, and sending missionaries into Protestant districts. Laity often took the lead; the Calvinist government often arrested or harassed priests who seemed too effective. Catholic numbers stabilized at about a third of the population in the Netherlands; they were strongest in the southeast.
Gouden Eeuw: 1600–1712
During the Eighty Years’ war (Dutch: Tachtig Jarige oorlog), the Dutch provinces became Northern Europe's most important trading centre, replacing Flanders in this respect. At the time there was a great flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences in the Netherlands: in the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch were arguably the most economically wealthy and scientifically advanced of all European nations. This new, officially Calvanisit nation flourished culturally and financially, creating what historian Simon Schama has called an “Embarrassment of the riches”. Speculation in the tulip trade led to the first stock market crash in 1637, encouraged by Adriaen van der Donck and the Patroon model, created a wealthy American fur trade, trade with the baltic, with the east brought in untold riches.
The invention of the sawmill enabled the construction of a massive fleet of ships for worldwide trading and the defence of the republic's economic interests by military means. National industries such as shipyards and sugar refineries expanded as well. This proved to be the backbone on which the Republic of her trade empire was built.
Colony of New Netherland (1624-1796)
The Dutch established the colony of New Netherland on Manhattan Island as a base to conduct the fur trade. The new colony attracted Dutch, Wallonian, German, and Finnish settlers. The colony's growth was further sped up by the Patroon system, in which patroons (manorial lords) would be awarded patches of land in exchange for bringing in families to work on the land. The colony was fully managed by the Dutch West India Company. With the growing number of settlers came demands for representation in the colonial government. The settlers were disgruntled with the Dutch WIC's management of the colony, and demanded accountability. This culminated into the Municipal Charter of 1655, which gave New Netherland a more representative government and removed the Dutch WIC from colonial governance. The Dutch would keep New Netherland until the French revolution resulted in its loss in 1796.
The Tussenland Colonies (1655-1903)
With the Dutch WIC removed from New Netherland, they had to move their trading operations northwest. In 1655, Dutch Republic awarded the Dutch West India a trade monopoly for the vast American region west of New Netherland, which was later called the Tussenland. Thus, effectively splitting Dutch territorial holdings in America into two: a settler colony (New Netherland) and a trade-oriented colony (Tussenland). The Dutch WIC secured a trade partnership and alliance from the Iroquois Confederacy, which led the Iroquois to be strongest native force in Northeast America thanks to European weaponry. With the French and their Algonkin allies kept at bay by the Iroquois, Dutch explorers freely explored down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, which allowed them to lay claim to a huge portion of America. By the 19th century, the Tussenland would be composed of multiple colonies and protectorates, and was consolidated in 1861 into the Federation of Tussenland. By 1903, Tussenland gained independence from the Dutch.
Colony of Tauland
Taulandt (formerly called Formosa) was an island controlled by the Dutch East India Company in Asia. It served as the company's gateway to the Chinese trade. Due to their alliance with the Qing, the Dutch were able to secure a monopoly in the Chinese trade in the 17th century through the island of Formosa. The island later gained independence in the 1890s as a result of the divergent Dutch-Sinitic cultural infusion and separatist sentiment.
The Anglo-Dutch Wars
With the restoration of Charles II to the throne, a surge of optimism hit England that they could finally be able to reverse the Dutch supremacy over global trade. Due to a trade conflict and against the wishes of Princess Mary Henrietta, the English waged war against the Dutch. However, things would not turn out hopeful for the English. One of the war goals was to take New Netherland, which essentially cleaved through British North American territorial holdings. However, the popular government of New Netherland, now being led by Paulus van der Grist, put up a fight against the British. Thanks to their alliance with the Iroquois, New Netherland forces were able to fend off the English invaders. 600 New Netherlanders and 400 Mohawks captured the city of Rodenbergh (Nieuwhaven) on May 5, 1665.
The Dutch West India Company’s army quickly marched towards other settlements along the Versche River (Connecticut River), as these settlements were on Dutch claimed land. Despite initial English naval success, the war ended in a Dutch victory. The resulting Treaty of Breda (1667) affirmed Dutch ownership of the land west of the Versche River, land south of New Netherland up to the Suydt River, and Maryland.
The Triple Alliance, and the Franco-Dutch War (1672)
The conclusion of the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1667 with the Treaty of Breda had been bitter for England. However, the situation changed upon the death of Charles II of England in 1667 December. Her elder sister and heir presumptive of England, Mary Henrietta, was coronated queen of England. Mary Henrietta was married to the stadholder of the Dutch Republic, William II.
Although she was initially unpopular with the Dutch population in the United Provinces due to her sympathies toward the Stuart family, she had always sought for greater cooperation between the Dutch Republic and England. She was against England's declaration of war against the Dutch that had sparked the Second Anglo-Dutch war years earlier. Upon her coronation in 1667, she pursued a drastic change in diplomatic policy, one that was aligned with the Dutch Republic
Meanwhile, a year earlier, France had started the War of Devolution against Spain, where they had overrun and occupied crucial forts in the Spanish Netherlands. As a response, Johan de Witt, grand pensionary of the Dutch Republic, forged a coalition against French expansionism in the low countries. This coalition would be known as the Triple Alliance and had included England and Sweden. The coalition was able to successfully pressure the French into peace, resulting in the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, where the French gained significant territory in the low countries.
The Anglo-Dutch Union or the Twenty-Year Union (1692-1712)
Queen Henrietta of England died in 1692 at the age of 56. Her son, the stadtholder William III, inherits the throne of England at age 42. Being the stadtholder of the Netherlands, the ascension of William III had brought the two nations into a union. However, William III died in 1712 heirless. Thus the Anglo-Dutch Union ended after 20 years, and the Second Stadtholderate period began in the Dutch Republic.
Silver Century
Great Silesian War and Prince Maurice's War (1750-1755)
After resurrecting an old Brandenburg testamentary claim to Silesia and forming an alliance with France and other smaller German states, Prussia invaded Austrian Silesia in 1750. France, Bavaria, and Saxony, and Sweden had supported the Franco-Prussian Entente. Britain had supported its ally, Austria. Spain, having a Habsburg monarch, and territories in the low countries, soon became quickly involved in the war. The Dutch Republic was also attacked by the French due to their interests in the region.
Prince Maurice's War was the North American theatre of the Great Silesian War. Prince Maurice's War was one of the largest colonial wars in North America, where the colonies of Britain, Spain, and the Dutch Republic were pitted against those of France and their native allies.
The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Vienna on 16 February 1755. The treaty granted the Dutch possession of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Basin region, while the British were granted possession of Guadeloupe (including the islands of Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Les Saintes, Marie-Galante, and La Désirade). In Europe, Prussia's territory was divided between the allies. East Frisia becomes part of the United Provinces, and East Prussia has been granted to Russia, who then had exchanged it for the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia shortly after, which had been under the Polish Dominion.
These where just a number of the numerous wars the Netherlands fought
The French Revolution
In the midst of the French revolution, the French invaded the Dutch Republic in 1795, replacing it with a pro-French client state known as the Batavian Republic. The stadtholder sent an order to the colonies to surrender to England for safekeeping from the French while the Dutch Republic was in exile. However, colonies resisted this order and refused to surrender to the English or French. One notable exception is New Netherland, which took advantage of the opportunity and declared independence from the Dutch in 1796.
Eventually, revolutionary France was defeated in 1814. The low countries was restored to Dutch hands in the same year, but this time under a monarchy: the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with the House of Orange as the ruling family.
Turbulente jaren (1806 - 1873)
With the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, several critical reforms were enacted. These reforms could be divided into 2 categories, company reforms and administrative reforms. The company reforms reorganized the numerous trading companies, The West indies company (West Indiesche Compagnie) and the Dutch East Indies (Verenigde oost indies he compagnie) were split into smaller companies. The goal of this was simple, to encourage competition and innovation among them. Most notably where the Royal Tussenland company (koninklijke Tussenlandt compagnie) that operated in Tussenlandt and the Goudkust compagnie.
The administrative reforms were considered just as crucial but are often forgotten. These reforms did away with the old decentralized nature of the republic, no longer did the provinces act as defacto independent entities. From 1814 onwards the power would be with the central government in the Hague, with the provinces acting more on regional matters. This was to better control the kingdom, protect it and govern it.
During the early 1800s in the Netherlands, her time was mainly spent at home on slowly industrializing, solidifying and building up the governmental institutions, rewriting the constitution of 1841 with the new constitution of 1844 that gave parliament more power. It is often said by historians that in these years the Netherlands, while one of the great powers, still was building the necessary institutions that would make it a remarkably resilient adaptable, and efficient government later on. All of this was helped by the riches coming in from Asia and the Americas fueling the industrialization and the state as a whole.
Wars of Humiliation (1850-1857)
Canton War (1850-1857)
The Dutch had a long monopoly over the Chinese trade since the establishment of Formosa (now Taulandt) in the 17th century. Aiming to break the monopoly, the Kingdoms of France and Britain supported a growing revolt in Canton that aimed to overthrow the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty requested help from their ally, the Dutch.
On 1 March 1850, a Dutch admiral sunk a British ship carrying gunpowder en route to Canton. As soon as Europe got word of the incident, Britain hastily declared war on the Dutch Empire. France soon joined on the side of Canton and the British. This quickly developed into a global conflict, with British and Dutch colonies being pitted against each other in the Americas and multiple naval battles being fought on the English channel. In China, the Anglo-British-Cantonese alliance was slowly pushing back the Dutch and the Qing.
Notable are the numerous raids that took place upon the Dutch coast by British and French privateers, just as notable where the concurent raids by Dutch privateers upon the British and French coasts. This was the only true fighting that took place as both sides has their military held up by manning their European borders.
2nd Dutch-Spanish War (1850-1855)
While the Netherlands was distracted, Spain declared a separate war against the Dutch, aiming to take possession of conflicting claims in Tussenland and in the Maluku islands. The Dutch surrendered in 1856. In the resulting treaty, the Dutch ceded a large portion of the Mississippi basin region to New Spain, and they were forced to release South Tussenland as an independent nation, effectively locking the Dutch out of the Gulf of Florida. In the East Indies, the Dutch had ceded the Spice Islands (Maluku) to the Spanish. This had soured relations between the Dutch and the Spanish, until in 1881, Mexico had declared their independence as the Empire of Mexico.
De terugkomst
When the wars of humiliation come to end in 1857, with the treaty Hamburg, the Netherlands entered a new paradigm. The wars were costly, they had taken away the Dutch monopoly on the china trade, and had taken away valuable islands in the indies. This resulted in an economic depression that lasted roughly three years. It was only when Dirk van Sytzama became prime minister that it changed.
Dirk van Sytzama was the leader of a new political movement, it called for reforms to the Netherlands economy, more rights for the children, more protection for the average worker and revenge. Under his party, the “Anti revolutie partij” the Netherlands implemented mandatory education, the standard working week, more protection for the average man, more rights, as well as economic reforms.
The period of ARP rule is often characterized by historians for its stability, economic reform and growth. It was during this period that the Netherlands also become more militaristic such as in the days of the Republic. It was seen by many a Dutchman that the loss of the colony and wealth was due to the unwillingness to fight.
Rebuilding the military
From 1870 onwards as the Netherlands was getting back on its feet, with it exceeding production levels of 1850 for the first time. It became clear to the ruling “Christelijke democraten partij” (CDP), that the world was no longer safe. In the past 20 years since the end of the wars of humiliation, the Netherlands navy had slowly rebuilt itself, yet remained a small but capable navy focused on defence, while the Dutch army was reliant upon 3 professional regiments used for the colonies. This in the eyes of prime minister Floris de Noorman could not continue. What made it more apparent was when tensions arose with Britain over Aceh. It was thus in 1870 that the first of the so-called “Fleet laws” (Vloot wetten) and “Army laws” (Leger wetten) were taken in.
The Fleet laws were, in essence, large-scale building orders for the Netherlands navy, these laws would be enacted every 5 years, and were long-term oriented. For it was clear to the Dutch officer corp and the members of parliament that the Netherlands had a strong maritime tradition, and some of the largest and most advanced shipyards in Europe but it had to build up its forces.
These expansions would see the Netherlands by 1900 possessing the second largest fleet in Europe second only to the British. It was a fleet unrivalled by its neighbours and often said to be able to go toe to toe with the British if needed.
Leger Wetten
The army laws were in the same spirit of the fleet laws, they had a focus on professionalizing the military, expanding it and building up its military industry. This saw the enactment of conscription, (Diesntplicht or Nationale dienst). Each man once he turned 18 would serve for a period of 2 years. During this time they learned the basic military skills, it was in essence meant to built up a large pool of manpower. It was during the wars of humiliation that the Netherlands lacked a reserve force.
During this period of reform, the Netherlands became more standardised also adopting steel helmets, the field grey uniforms that they would become famous for. All of this resulted in the Netherlands in which it was normal that at least 7 out of 10 males would be part of the reserves, this aided in the militarisation of Dutch society as a whole.
These conscripts where led by a professional core of officers, with 200,000 men being the standing force (professionals). It was during this time that the military was divided into 20 divisions of 10,000 men each. A majority of these forces, at least 12 of the 20 divisions, were stationed throughout the empire, a majority in Tussenlandt. With around 8 at home for home defence.
Thus when the 1900s came the Netherlands possed a robust, professional and modern military. It was a military that had become known for its professionalism, ability to respond and its brutality in the colonies, it was often said that;
“A single Dutchman can equal 10 Frenchmen”
1900 to 1939
By the 20th century, the Netherlands had rissen out of the ashes of the 2nd Dutch-Spanish War (1850-1855) and the Canton War (1850-1855), fought primarily in North America and in Asia. The war caused a massive loss of Dutch territory and prestige. Although in the 1870s, the Dutch economy started to recover. In the next thirty years, the Kingdom of the Netherlands was gradually able to rebuild itself and modernise its military and navy. It was thus able to rebuilt itself into one of the primary powers of the world.
The Dutch-Mexican War (1901-1903)
By the 1890s, tensions arose when the Dutch condemned Mexico's activities in the Boer Provinces. In March 1900, the Netherlands warned Mexico to cease activity in the Boer provinces, but Mexico ignored the warning. The following month, the Netherlands marched its troops into the Black Hills Republic (nominally Mexican territory) to protect the Amerikaner settlers there. Mexico was outraged by this violation of its sovereignty. In an attempt to diffuse the tension, the Netherlands offered to purchase all former and claimed territories to avoid conflict, but Mexico rejected it. Mexico issued an ultimatum to the Dutch to end their presence inside Mexican territory but was once again ignored. Mexico took no further action until the following year. On February 3, 1901, Mexico declared war on the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
On the seas, the young Mexican navy was no match against the Dutch navy, which had blockaded important Atlantic-facing Mexican ports. However, the war was slow and drudging for the Dutch on land, having difficulty penetrating Mexican defenses. The tides eventually favored the Dutch when they won the siege of Santa Maria in the spring of 1901. The Dutch emerged victorious in a series of naval battles on the gulf and captured Matamoros and Tampico in the same year, prompting calls for peace. On June 4, 1903, peace was signed on the city of Williamsburg in neutral Virginia in favor of the Dutch.
After the war, territory that was lost during the 2nd Dutch-Spanish War was returned to the Dutch. In the Boer provinces of Mexico, the Northern Boers identified more with the Dutch than the Mexicans, and they were invited to be absorbed into the Federation of Tussenland, but they rejected the offer, citing cultural differences as a result of 75 years of Hispanic influence. There was also opposition within Tussenland against their entry into the Federation. The provinces of Irokesenland and Westerzee feared that two new Amerikaner dominated provinces would upset the political balance within the Federation and threaten Tussenland's cosmopolitan nature. As a compromise, borders were redrawn, and the independent Amerikaens Free State was created.
On the other hand, the Southern Boers identified more with Mexico and elected to stay within the Mexican Empire, granted that their autonomy would be restored and be allowed to continue self-rule.
Independence of Dutch Tussenland
Despite winning the Dutch-Mexican War and having new territories annexed into the Tussenland Federation (as unincorporated territories), the Kingdom of the Netherlands was slow (and reluctant) to parcel out these lands to the Amerikaners. Due to this sluggishness, the Tussenlanders, independently of the Dutch, established the Tussenland Land Agency which started surveying the land and opening it up to settlers. This led to the Dutch dismissing and replacing the leader of the Federation. However, Tussenlanders were loyal to the dismissed leader, and started to resent the Kingdom of the Netherlands for this act. This soon grew into a conflict between Tussenland and the Netherlands, with the latter blockading Tussenland's Pacific ports and the Mexican Gulf. Tussenland declared independence on February 14, 1905, and it was not long until the Tussenlanders drove off the Dutch from America. Despite this, the Dutch still did not officially recognize Tussenland independence until 1911.
Quasi-War with the New Netherland
Back in 1905, New Netherland supported the Federation of Tussenland in their independence against the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Dutch conducted a blockade of the Gulf of Mexico to prevent Tussenlander ships from entering or exiting the Atlantic. However, goods and resources could still be shipped to Tussenland due to their Pacific ports and through New Netherland. Naturally, in September 1905, this blockade eventually extended to the seas of New Netherland. At first, NNL ships could pass through with ease through the blockade, as the Dutch only targeted Tussenlander ships. However, this changed when on February 1, 1906, the Dutch warship Amsterdam sunk the JHS Restaurasie, a merchant ship owned by the Jonkman Shipping Company based in New Netherland. New Netherland issued a diplomatic protest against the Kingdom of the Netherlands, but both sides took no further diplomatic action.
Instead, New Netherland mandated the outfitting of merchant ships with weaponry in order for them to defend themselves in case of a Dutch attack. This soon rapidly developed into an undeclared naval war between the Kingdom of the Netherlands and New Netherland. In 1906, the Kingdom of the Netherlands was able to sink four more ships of New Netherland. This rapidly escalated into an undeclared naval war between the two powers. The Dutch had the upper hand in 1906, but the tides were quickly turned in the following years. The Quasi-War catalyzed New Netherland's ship production, enabling them to outfit and deploy new submarines and armed merchant ships. The willingness of the Dutch to continue the blockade gradually started to wane in 1908, as their ships were constantly harassed by NNL merchant ships and submarine fleets. Since this was an undeclared war, there was no formal conclusion to the Quasi-War. However, the last naval encounter between NNL and the Netherlands was on April 4, 1910.
The Tulips Uprising (1910)
Due to the development of events in the Netherlands and in Europe as a whole, ideas of anti-militarism, anti-colonialism, Communardism, and even anti-monarchism took root in the kingdom. Since the loss of Tussenland, the Netherlands' naval blockade and warfare had worn out the civilian populace, who were starting to grow weary of the constant wars. This culminated in the Tulips Uprising in 1910, where various factions coalesced into a single front, demanding civil and political reform in the Netherlands.
This uprising was easily halted by the Dutch, however, and support for it soon faded. Historians attribute the failure of the Tulips Uprising to the disunity and infighting between the factions. For example, the anti-colonialists were composed of both monarchists and anti-monarchists, and they never got to a consensus on the topic of monarchy. There were also Communards who refused to cooperate with the monarchists and anti-colonialists. These circumstances ultimately led to the failure of the Tulips Uprising.