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{{Infobox language|boxsize=250px|name=<center> Amerikaens|nation=[[New Netherland]] </br> [[Tussenland]] </br> [[South Tussenland]] </br> [[Amerikaens Free State]] </br> [[Opdamsland]] </br> [[Boschland]]|minority=[[Mexico]] </br> [[Panama City]]|agency=[[Taelkomisie]]|ethnicity=[[Amerikaeners]]|fam1=Scythian|fam2=Germanic|fam3={{nowrap | West Germanic}}|fam4=Netherlandic}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Amerikaens
| image = Description of New Netherland (as it is Today) WDL4071.jpg
| imagesize = 300px
| imagecaption =A page from a 1655 book by the first Director-General [[Adriaen van der Donck]].
| nativename = Amerikaens
| pronunciation = [ˌɑː.meː.riːˈkɑːns]
| states = [[New Netherland]]
| ethnicity = [[Amerikaener|Amerikaeners]]
| fam1 = Scythian
| dialects = [[Amerikaens#Dialects|Amerikaens dialects]]
| script = Latin
| nation = [[New Netherland]] </br> [[Tussenland]] </br> [[South Tussenland]] </br> [[Amerikaens Free State]] </br> [[Opdamsland]] </br> [[Boschland]]
| minority =[[Mexico]] </br> [[Panama City]] </br> [[Colombia]] </br> [[Saint-Domingue]]
|boxsize=200px|ancestor=Bergen Dutch|fam2=Germanic|fam3=Dutch|agency=[[Amerikaense Taelkomisie]]}}'''Amerikaens''' (/ˌɑː.meː.riːˈkɑːns/) is a West Germanic language and daughter language of [[Dutch]] spoken primarily by [[Amerikaener|Amerikaeners]] across a vast area of North America. It evolved from dialects of Bergen Dutch spoken in [[History of New Netherland|17th century New Netherland]], eventually developing several different varieties as well as a standard register over the following centuries. It serves as a primary and official language in the states of [[New Netherland]], [[Tussenland]], [[South Tussenland]], [[Amerikaens Free State|the Free State]], [[Opdamsland]], and [[Boschland]]. Amerikaens is also spoken by minority communities in nearby Latino countries such as [[Mexico]] and [[Colombia]].
 
'''Amerikaens''' ([[Amerikaens#Phonology|[ˌɑ.miriˈkɒːnz]]]) is a West Germanic language primarily spoken throughout North America. Along with [[Afrikaans]] and [[Tauaans]], Amerikaens is a product of 17th-century Dutch settler colonialism. It is established as an official language in six sovereign states, several northwestern [[Mexico|Mexican]] provinces, and the ''de facto'' [[Colombia|Colombian]] territory of [[Panama City|Panama]]. Since 1951, Amerikaens has also been been recognized as the primary working language of the [[Association of North American Nations]].
The language developed an independent identity during the course of the 18th century. In the early 20th century, a common literary variety of Amerikaens was formally standardized in New Netherland and Tussenland. As a consequence, this register of Amerikaens is the predominant form of the language used in government, education, and literature today.
 
It is the second most widely spoken Germanic language in the world, behind [[English language|English]] and after [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. Only since 1910 has Amerikaens been subject to legal regulation by the [[Taelkomisie]], allowing it to diverge greatly from its sister languages, eventually becoming mutually unintelligible with standard Dutch sometime in the 19th century. Its unique phonology, orthography, and grammar has been influenced by a diverse pool of European immigrants, indigenous languages of North America, the great geographic extent across which its dialects are spoken, and the rise of [[Anti-Atlanticism|anti-Atlanticist ideology]] in the late modern era.
 
== Nomenclature ==
Dialects of the Dutch language in the Americas were referred to as ''Nederduytsch'' or ''Lîg Duyts'' ('Low Dutch') prior to the late 18th century. With the independence of New Netherland, the term ''Amerikaens'' gained popularity as the [[Amerikaener|Amerikaener identity]] formed. The former two terms are still used extensively in academia, everyday speech, and regional dialects, especially when needed to distinguish it from other Germanic varieties.
 
== History ==
 
== Geographic distributionPhonology ==
{{Main|Amerikaens phonology}}
==Phonology==
Standard Amerikaens pronunciation, commonly known as the ''Juys Mondordt'' (<abbr>lit. 'p</abbr>roper speech'), is the preferred formal register of the language originating in the 19th-century speech of bourgeois communities in coastal [[New Netherland]].
{| class="wikitable"
 
|+Consonants
=== <small>Consonants</small> ===
!
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! colspan="2" |
!Labial
!Alveolar
Line 38 ⟶ 30:
|
|-
! rowspan="32" |Plosive
!<small>{{abbr|vl.|Voiceless}}</small>
!voiceless
|p
|t
|
|tʃ<ref>/c/ and /tɕ/ are allophones of /tʃ/. </ref>
|k
|
|-
!<small>{{abbr|v.|Voiced}}</small>
!aspirated
|b
|p<sup>h</sup>
|d
|t<sup>h</sup>
|
|g
|k<sup>h</sup>
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Affricate
!voiced
|b
|
|d<ref>/d/ is devoiced at the ends of words as /t/.</ref>
|t͡ʃ 
|
|g<ref>/g/ is an allophone of [χ] and is also used in loanwords.</ref>
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!<small>{{abbr|vl.|Voiceless}}</small>
!voiceless
|f
|s
|ʃ{{ref|''Sch'' sound|2}}
|ʃ<ref>/ɕ/ is an allophone.</ref>
|χ{{ref|''Cha'' sound|1}}
| χ<ref>Merger of /ɣ/ and /x/. Before /j/, it can be fronted to /ç/.</ref>
|h
|-
!<small>{{abbr|v.|Voiced}}</small>
!voiced<ref>Voiced fricatives are generally devoiced by the majority of Amerikaens speakers.</ref>
|v
|z
|ʒ
|
|ɦ
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
| w<ref>Due to influence from French and English, the original Dutch /ʋ/ came to be realised as /w/.</ref>
|l
|
Line 84 ⟶ 76:
! colspan="2" |Rhotic
|
| colspan="3" |r<ref>[ʁ] and [ɾ] are allophones.</ref>
|
|}
{{note|''Cha'' sound|1}}/χ/ formed as a merger of the Dutch /ɣ/ and /x/. Its voiced allophonic contexts is [ʁ], often mistaken as a rhotic due to its similarity to the French 'r'.
{| class="wikitable"
 
|+Vowels
==== Palatalization ====
Due to mutual conditioning with the umlaut process and the diverse origins of Amerikaens speakers, Dutch consonant sequences such as /sx/ were palatalized into /ʃ/{{note|''Sch'' sound|2}}. Palatal consonants such as /t͡ʃ/, previously analyzed as the sequence /tj/, became distinctly phonemic.
 
The traditional and most common Dutch diminutive, -''(t)je'', is too palatalized in Amerikaens, One of the most popular examples is the given name ''Annetje'' ('Annie'), which according to the 1910 Taelbück is to be written as ''Anne<u>tia</u>'' and pronounced [[Amerikaens#Phonology|[ɑnæt͡ʃə]]].
 
=== <small>Vowels</small> ===
{|
| style="vertical-align: top" |
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! colspan="42" |Front
! colspan="3" |Central
! colspan="42" |Back
|-
!
! colspan="2" |<small>unrounded</small>
! colspan="2" |<small>rounded</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>unrounded</small>
! colspan="2" | <small>rounded</small>
! colspan="2" |<small>unrounded</small>
! colspan="2" |<small>rounded</small>
|-
!
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
!<small>short</small>
!<small>long</small>
|-
!Close
| i
|iːy
|
|yː
|
|
|
|
|
|
|uː
|-
!Mid
! Close-mid
|
|ø{{ref|Morphological umlaut|1}}
|eː
|ə
|o
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| oː
|-
!Open-mid
!Mid
|ɛ
|
|œ
|œː
|ə
|
|
|ʌ
|
|ɔ
|ɔː
|-
!Open
!Near-open
|æ
|æː
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!Open
|(a)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|ɑ
|ɑː
|}
| style="vertical-align: top" |
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!Fronting
!Diphthongs
!Centering
| colspan="11" |ɑi æi ɑu ɛu ɛi œu oːi ɔu ɔi
!Backing
|}
|-
==== Vowel shift from European Dutch ====
|ui
The vowel shift in Amerikaens began in the mid-17th century in [[New Netherland]], gradually developing until its conclusion in the late 19th century. Some dialects of Amerikaens, such as the Voor dialects of [[Tussenland]], preserve European Dutch pronunciations.
| rowspan="3" |ɛ<sup>ə</sup>
{| class="wikitable"
|iu
|-
|ɔi
|œu
|-
|ɑi
|ɑu
|}
|}
The Amerikaens vowel system, largely based on that of Hollandic Dutch, underwent a thorough counterclockwise vowel shift known as the ''Linksom''. It also developed features found in some littoral Flemish or Rhenish German dialects, such as morphological umlaut.
 
==== Umlaut ====
Amerikaens has developed a system of i-umlaut mutation in long back vowels. This feature initially failed to spread to western Dutch dialects, such as the dominant Hollandic. According to the ''Palatalsprickel'' theory proposed by linguist [[Hans Meißen]] in 1924, the palatalization of certain consonants is responsible for the mutation of radical vowels (i-umlaut) in Amerikaens and other trans-Rhenish Germanic languages. This change can originally be traced back to the diverse stock of European immigrants who arrived in America between 1650 and 1800.
 
This mutation of /uː/ and /ɔː/, most commonly represented with /ø/{{note|Morphological umlaut|1}}, only occurs in closed syllables with all coda except ''-s(t)'', ''-(n)t'', or ''-r(t)'', which fail to trigger the preceding vowel and cause it to retain its backness. As a pure result of morphological umlaut, /ø/ is not a part of Amerikaens' underlying vowel inventory, unlike every other front vowel present in the language. Due to its proximity to other phonemic vowels, it may be realized as [ʏ], [ø̞], or even [ɵ] depending on the individual speaker and morphological context.
 
=== <small>List of major sound changes</small> ===
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="text-align: center;"
!Dutch
!Amerikaens
|-
! colspan="2" |Example
| rowspan="2" |eː
!English
|i
!Notes
|-
|ɛ<sup>ə</sup>
|-
|ɪ
|ɛ
|[ɪk] ''ik''
|[ɛk] ''ik''
|'I'
|
|-
|ɛ
|æ
|[wɛx] ''weg''
|[wæχ] ''weg''
|'Road'
|
|-
| rowspan="32" |ɑaː
|ɔː
|ɑ
|[bɑŋk] ''bank''
|[bɑŋk] ''banck''
|'Couch', 'bench'
|
|-
|ɑː
|[ɑxt] ''acht''
|[ɑːχt] ''agt''
|'Eight'
|
|-
|ɔ
| rowspan="3" |ʌ
|o
|[pɑt] ''pad''
|[pʌt] ''padt''
|'Toad'
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |oː
|ʏ
|ɔː
|[lʏxt] ''lucht''
|[lʌχt] ''lught''
|'Sky'
|
|-
|uː
| rowspan="2" |o
|[os] ''os''
|[ʌs] ''os''
|'Ox'
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |øː
|ɔː
|[ons]
|[ɔːns]
|'Us'
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |uː
|i
|iː
|[tin] ''tien''
|[tiːn] ''tîn''
|'Ten'
|
|-
|u
|uː
|[stul] ''stoel''
|[stuːl] ''stül''
|'Chair', 'seat'
|
|-
|ʏ
| rowspan="3" |eː
|eːə
|[ˈne.ɣə(n)] ''negen''
|[ˈneː.χə] ''nege''
|'Nine'
|
|-
|œy
|ɛ<sup>ə</sup>, ɛː
|œu
|[neːr] ''neer''
|[nɛːr] ''nîr''
|'Near'
|
|-
|iːɛi
|ɑi
|[eːn] ''een''
|[iːn] ''în''
|'One'
|In dialectal speech.
|-
|eːu
| rowspan="2" |aː
|iu
|ɑː
|[jaːr] ''jaar''
|[jɑːr] ''jaer''
|'Year'
|
|-
|aːi
|ɔː
|ɔi
|[ˈɦaː.vər] ''haver''
|[ˈhɔː.fər] ''hafer''
|'Oats'
|
|-
|oːi
| rowspan="2" |ɛi
|ɑiui
|[ˈstrɛi̯kə(n)] ''strijken''
|[ˈstrɑikə] ''strÿcke''
|'To iron'
|
|-
|æisx
| rowspan="2" |ʃ
|[vɛi̯f] ''vijf''
|[væif] ''vÿf''
|'Five'
|
|-
|œysj
|œu-
|tj
|[ɦœy̯s] ''huis''
|t͡ʃ
|[hœus] ''huys''
|-
|'House'
|ɦ
|h
|-
|ɣ
| rowspan="2" |χ
|-
|x
|}
 
== Orthography ==
Modern Amerikaens orthography is based on the rules published by the [[Taelkomisie]], specifically the [[Law of New Netherland|Placaet]] of 19 August 1910 and the proliferation of the Taelbück. It was created during an era of intense [[Amerikaeners|Amerikaener nationalism]] and [[anti-Atlanticism]]. Unlike other Latin orthographies, Amerikaens orthography departs heavily from tradition and Latinate conventions. It has also been noted as over-representing phonological processes such as palatalization and umlaut to compensate for the lack of it in its sister scripts such as those of [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Standard German]].
 
=== <small>Spelling to sound correspondences</small> ===
==== Divergences from Dutch ====
{|
Amerikaens orthography. first recognized as distinct in the mid-18th century, preserves many forms found in early modern Dutch. In 1910, orthography was officially standardized for literary Amerikaens.
| style="vertical-align: top" |
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="text-align: center;"
!Dutch
|+Consonants
!Amerikaens
!Spelling
! colspan="2" |Example
!UsageMain notesvalues
!Minor values
|-
|'''b'''
|aa
|ae/b/
|/p/
|''Amerik<u>aa</u>ns''
|''Amerik<u>ae</u>ns''
|
|-
|'''c'''
|ei
|ey/k/
|/s/, /t͡ʃ/
|''Înh<u>ei</u>d''
|''Înh<u>ey</u>dt''
|
|-
|'''ch'''
|ui
|/ʃ/
|uy
|/χ/
|''Fr<u>ui</u>t''
|''Fr<u>uy</u>t''
|
|-
|'''ck'''
|ij
|ÿ/k/
|—
|''Vr<u>ij</u>heid''
|''Vr<u>ÿ</u>heydt''
|
|-
|'''d'''
|uu
|ue/d/
|/t/
|''Absol<u>uu</u>t''
|''Absol<u>ue</u>t''
|
|-
|'''dt'''
|ee
|î/t/
|/d/
|''<u>Ee</u>nheid''
|''<u>Î</u>nheydt''
|
|-
|'''dsch'''
|oo
|/d͡ʒ/
|ö
|/t͡ʃ/
|''V<u>oo</u>rland''
|''V<u>ö</u>rlandt''
|
|-
|'''f'''
|oe
|ü/f/
|—
|''Daart<u>oe</u>''
|''Daert<u>ü</u>''
|
|-
|'''g'''
|m
|mm/g/
|/χ/
|''Ko<u>m</u>en''
|''Ko<u>mm</u>e''
| rowspan="2" |Does not occur at the beginning of a syllable.
|-
|'''gh'''
|l
|/χ/
|ll
| rowspan="4" |—
|''Graa<u>l</u>''
|''Grae<u>ll</u>''
|-
|'''h'''
|k
|ck/h/
|''Boe<u>k</u>''
|''Boe<u>ck</u>''
| rowspan="3" |Only occurs at the end of a syllable.
|-
|'''j'''
|d
|dt/j/
|''Sta<u>d</u>''
|''Sta<u>dt</u>''
|-
|'''k'''
|f
|v/k/
|''Kal<u>f</u>''
|''Kal<u>v</u>''
|}
 
==== Spelling to sound correspondences ====
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
! colspan="3" |Vowels
! rowspan="24" |
! colspan="3" |Consonants
|-
|'''kh'''
! rowspan="2" |Grapheme
|/χ/
! colspan="2" |IPA
|/k/
! rowspan="2" |Grapheme
! colspan="2" |IPA
|-
|'''l'''
!checked
|/l/
! free
| rowspan="3" |—
!normal
!final
|-
|'''m'''
|a
|/m/
|/ɑ/, /ʌ/, /ɔ/
|-
|/ɑː/
|'''mm'''
|b
|/m(ː)/
|-
|'''n'''
|/n/
|/ŋ/
|-
|'''ng'''
|/ŋ/
|/n/, /ŋk/
|-
|'''p'''
|/p/
|/b/
|-
|'''ph'''
|/f/
|/p/
|-
|'''q'''
|ae
|/k/
| colspan="2" |/ɑː/, /eː/
|d—
|-
|'''qu'''
|/k/
|/ku/
|-
|'''r'''
|/r/
|—
|-
|'''s'''
|/s/
|/z/
|-
|'''sch'''
|/ʃ/
|—
|-
|'''t'''
|/t/
|/d/
|-
|'''th'''
|/t/
|/d/
|-
|'''tsch'''
|au
|/t͡ʃ/
| colspan="2" |/ɑu/, /ɔu/, /ɔ/
|/d͡ʒ/
|dj, dsch
| colspan="2" |/ʒ/, /d<sup>j</sup>/
|-
|'''v'''
| e
|/v/
|/ɛ/, /ə/, /æ/
|/eː/, /əw/
|f, ph
| colspan="2" |/f/
|-
|'''w'''
|o
|/ɔ/, /ʌw/
|/oːv/
|g, gh
| colspan="2" |/χ/, /g/
|-
|'''z'''
|ö
|/z/
| colspan="2" |/oː/
|h/s/
| colspan="2" |/h/, /ɦ/
|-
|'''zh'''
|ai, aei
|/z/
| colspan="2" |/ɑi/, /æi/
|/ʒ/
|j
|}
| colspan="2" |/j/
| style="vertical-align: top" |
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="text-align: center;"
|+Vowels
!Spelling
!Main values
!Minor values
|-
|'''a'''
|au(x), eau(x)
|/ɑ/
| colspan="2" |/oː/
|/ə/
|k, ck
| colspan="2" |/k/
|-
|'''ae'''
|auw
|/ɑː/
| colspan="2" |/ɔu/
|/ɔː/
|l
| colspan="2" |/l/
|-
|'''aey'''
|i, ie
|/ɑːi/
| /i/, /ə/, /ɛ/
|—
|/iː/
|m
| colspan="2" |/m/
|-
|'''ay'''
|î
|/ɑi/
| colspan="2" |/eː/
|/ɔi/
|n
| colspan="2" |/n/
|-
|îuw'''au, ieuwauw'''
|/ɑu/
| colspan="2" |/eːu/, /iu/
|ng—
| colspan="2" |/ŋ/
|-
|'''e'''
|ey
|/æ/
| colspan="2" |/ɛi/
|/ɛ/
|p
| colspan="2" |/p/
|-
|'''ey'''
|eu
|/ɑi/
| colspan="2" |/œː/
|r—
| colspan="2" |/r/
|-
|'''eu, euw'''
|oi
|/œ/
| colspan="2" |/ɔi/
|/ø/
|s
| colspan="2" |/s/, /s<sup>j</sup>/
|-
|'''i'''
|ou, ouw
| colspanrowspan="23" |/ɔui/
|/ɛ/
|sch, sh
| colspan="2" |/ʃ/, /sχ/
|-
|'''î'''
| ÿ
|ɛ<sup>ə</sup>
| colspan="2" |/ɑi/, /i/
|t, th
| colspan="2" |/t/
|-
|'''ie'''
|ü
| colspanrowspan="2" |/uː/—
|tsj, tj
| colspan="2" |/tʃ/, /t<sup>j</sup>/
|-
|'''ieuw'''
|uy, üy
|/iu/
| colspan="2" |/œu/, /ɛu/
|v
| colspan="2" |/f/, /v/
|-
|'''o'''
|ue
|/o/
| colspan="2" |/yː/
|/ɔː/
|w
|-
| colspan="2" |/w/
|'''ö'''
|/ɔː/
|/ø/
|-
|'''oy, öy'''
|/ɔi/
| rowspan="3" |—
|-
|'''ou, ouw'''
|/ɑu/
|-
|'''u'''
|/ə/
|-
|'''ü'''
|/u/
|/ø/
|-
|'''üy'''
|/ui/
| rowspan="3" |—
|-
|'''uy'''
|/œu/
|-
|'''ue'''
|uw
|/y/
| colspan="2" |/yu/
|z-
|'''ÿ'''
| colspan="2" |/s/, /z/
|/ɑi/
|/ə/
|}
|}
 
==== Sound change ====
Lenition is prevalent in Amerikaens, especially affecting consonants in the middle of words. Most notably, it affects the suffix ''-tie''. Initially, the suffix was read as /tsi/ but has since shifted solely to /si/. It is reflected in modern Amerikaens orthography; for example, Dutch ''politie'' has become Amerikaens ''polisie'' (/pʌ.ˈliː.si/, lit. 'police').
 
Deletion of final sounds (coda) in Amerikaens is one of the defining features of the language. Final consonants and vowels, most commonly ''n'' and ''e'', are elided and are also represented in writing.
 
* Dutch ''tevrede<u>n</u>'' → ''tevrede'' (/təˈvreː.də/, lit. content, satisfied)
* Dutch ''zeid<u>e</u>'' → ''zeyd'' (/zæit/, lit. said)
 
== Grammar ==
Compared to other Germanic languages, Amerikaens is considered weakly inflected, genderless, and by far more analytic of a language. The simplification of Amerikaens grammar is attributed to the need among early speakers of distinct ethnolinguistic backgrounds to communicate for purposes such as trade — thus, features like inflectional endings became redundant.
Generally speaking, Amerikaens grammar is largely based on the grammars of early modern Dutch, English, and Flemish. It is often considered to have the simplest syntax and morphology of any continental Germanic language.
 
==== Nouns and pronouns ====
Amerikaens does not possess grammatical gender. As it was already waning in Dutch, gender was eliminated completely during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, likely sped up due to the language's origin as a ''lingua franca'' among diverse settlers as well as [[English]] influence.
{| class="wikitable floatright"
 
|+Amerikaens pronouns
==== Plurals ====
!Person
Amerikaens only differs between the singular and plural forms, much like English. The plural form is usually created by adding the suffix ''-s'' to a word. If a word already ends in an ''s'', then an ''-en'' is added.
!Subject
{| class="wikitable"
!Object
!Dutch
!Possessive
|''Kinder<u>en</u>''
|''Cijns<u>en</u>''
|-
|1st singular
!Amerikaens
|Ik (''Kind<u>s<nowiki/u>'k'')
|Mÿ (''me'')
|''Cÿns<u>en</u>''
|Mÿn (''men'')
|-
|2nd singular
!English
|Jÿ (''je'')
|Children
|Jou (''ju'')
|Feudal tax
|Jouw (''juw'')
|-
|3rd singular, masculine
|Hÿ (''he'')
|Hem (''em'')
|Hÿs (''hes'')
|-
|3rd singular, feminine
|Sÿ (''se'')
|Her (''er'')
|Hers (''ers'')
|-
|1st plural
|Wÿ (''we'')
| colspan="2" |Ons
|-
|2nd plural
| colspan="2" |Jul
|Juls
|-
|3rd plural, for a person
| colspan="2" |Hun
|Huns
|-
|3rd plural, for an object
| colspan="2" |It
|Its
|}
Amerikaens only differs between the singular and plural forms, much like English. The plural form is usually created by the addition of the suffix ''-s''. If a word already ends in an ''s'', then an ''-en'' is appended in order to signify plurality.
 
Amerikaens also preserves the possessive genitive case from archaic Dutch declension unlike other Netherlandic varieties. Its survival beyond the early 18th century most probably was influenced by the [[English language]].
{{Blockquote|text='''Dutch''' <br> ''De vriend van de man'' lit. 'the friend of the man' <br> '''Amerikaens''' <br> ''Des mans friendt'' lit. 'the man's friend'}}
Like Dutch, Amerikaens pronouns retain case distinction; subject (nominative), object (accusative), and possessive (genitive). Pronouns occur in a stressed form and an unstressed form (shown in brackets). The stressed form retains the whole original vowel and is used mainly in formal situations or when distinction is needed.
 
==== Determiners ====
Only two articles, athe definitive (''de'') 'the' and anthe indefinitive (''în'' 'a(n),' exist in Amerikaens. They may be inflected in the genitive form (for example, ''Koninckrÿck <u>der</u> NederlandsNederlandts'' lit. '[[Netherlands|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]').
{| class="wikitable"
!
Line 562 ⟶ 510:
!Nominative
| colspan="2" |de
|în (''<nowiki/>'n'')
|-
!Genitive
|des
|der
|îns (''<nowiki/>'ns'')
|}
Demonstratives are words used to distinguish entities being referred to. As grammatical gender does not exist, there are only four demonstrative determiners in Amerikaens. Proximal indicates that the entities are close to the speaker, while distal incidatesindicates that they are far away.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Singular
!Plural
!English
|-
!Proximal
| colspan="2" |dese
|This, these
|-
!Distal
| colspan="2" |diedat
|That, those
|-
!Possessive
|dies
|dier
|Their's, the latter's
|}
''Dese'' is equivalent to English 'this' and 'these', while ''die'' corresponds to 'that' and 'those'. ''Dies'' and ''dier'' translate to 'their's' or 'the latter's'.
 
==== Genitive caseVerbs ====
Much like its sister language [[Afrikaans]], Amerikaens does not inflect or conjugate, nor is there a distinction between the infinitive and present forms of verbs. In order to form different verb forms such as tense, aspect, and modality, the infinitive form of the verb is accompanied by a pronoun and an auxiliary verb. The below table uses the example of the verb ''ît'' ('eat') in the perfect and continuous tenses.
Amerikaens preserves the possessive genitive case from archaic Dutch declension. Unlike in other varieties from the Netherlands, its survival throughout the late 17th century most probably was influenced by English.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
!Dutch
! colspan="3" |Amerikaens
! rowspan="2" |Dutch
!English
! rowspan="2" |English
!French
|-
!<small>Pronoun</small>
|''De vriend van de man.''
!<small>Auxiliary verb</small>
|''Des mans friendt.''
!<small>Infinitive</small>
|''The man's friend.''
|''L'ami de l'homme.''
|}
 
==== Pronouns ====
Like English and Dutch, Amerikaens pronouns retain case distinction; subject (nominative), object (accusative), and possessive (genitive). Pronouns occur in a stressed form (often ending with ''ÿ'') and an unstressed form (shown in brackets). The stressed form retains the whole original vowel and is used mainly in formal situations or when distinction is necessary.
{| class="wikitable"
!Person
!Subject
!Object
!Possessive
|-
|1st singular
|Ik ('k)
|Mÿ (me)
|Mÿn (men)
|-
|2nd singular
|Jÿ (je)
|Jou (ju)
|Jouw (juw)
|-
|3rd singular, masculine
|Hÿ (he)
|Hem (em)
|Hÿs (hes)
|-
|3rd singular, feminine
|Sÿ (se)
|Her (er)
|Hers (ers)
|-
|1st plural
|Wÿ (we)
| colspan="2" |Ons
|-
|2nd plural
| colspan="2" |Jul
|Juls
|-
|3rd plural, for a person
|Les
| colspan="2" |Leu
|-
|3rd plural, for an object
| colspan="2" |It
|Its
|}
The 3rd person plural forms ''les'' (/læ/) and ''leu'' (/lœː/) come from French ''les'' and ''leur'', meaning 'them' and their' respectively. The practice was brought to [[New Amsterdam]] by French immigrants and was popularized in the late 18th century, eventually superceding the original Dutch 3rd person plural forms ''zij'', ''hun'', and ''huns''.
 
''Jul(s)'', the 2nd plural, comes from the Dutch ''jullie'' (from ''jij'' 'you' + ''lui'' 'people'). It is the equivalent of ''y'all('s)'' in English, which is used in parts of the [[United Kingdom]] as well as [[Virginia]].
 
==== Verb tenses ====
Amerikaens is considered a tenseless language as verbs do not have morphological tenses (verbs do not conjugate or inflect). The infinitive form of the verb is complimented by a pronoun and an auxiliary verb to indicate different tenses.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Tense
! rowspan="2" |Form
! colspan="3" |Example: ''ît(e)''
|-
!Amerikaens
!Dutch
!English
|-
! colspan="2" |Infinitive
|''Ît(e)''
|''Eten''
|''(To) eat''
|-
!Present
| rowspan="6" |Ik
|Pronoun + verb
|∅
|''Ik ît''
| rowspan="6" |ît
|''Ik eet''
|Ik eet
|''I eat''
|I eat
|-
!Past
|hab
|Pronoun ''+ hab'' + verb
|''Ik hab ît''at
|I ate
|''Ik at''
|''I ate''
|-
!Future
|zal
|Pronoun + ''zhal'' + verb
|''Ik zhalzal ît''eten
|I will eat
|''Ik zal eten''
|''I will eat''
|-
!Present continuous
! colspan="5" |<small>Continuous aspect</small>
|dü
|Ik ben aan het eten
|I am eating
|-
!Past continuous
!Present
|dîd
|Pronoun + ''dü'' + verb
|''Ik düwas ît''aan het eten
|I was eating
|''Ik ben aan het eten''
|''I am eating''
|-
!Future continuous
!Past
|zal dü
|Pronoun + ''dîd'' + verb
|''Ik dîdzal ît''eten
|I will be eating
|''Ik was aan het eten''
|''I was eating''
|-
!Future
|Pronoun + ''zhal dü'' + verb
|''Ik zhal dü ît''
|—
|''I will be eating''
|}
 
== Vocabulary ==
{{Main|Amerikaens vocabulary}}
 
== See also ==
__FORCETOC__
 
[[Category:Languages]]
* [[List of languages]]
*[[Amerikaener|Amerikaeners]]
__FORCETOC__
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