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{{Infobox language|boxsize=200px250px|name=Amerikaens|script=Latin|ethnicity=[[Amerikaeners]]|fam1=Scythian|fam2=Germanic|fam3=West Germanic|ancestor=''Leeg Duits''|ancestor2=Early<center> Amerikaens|ancestor3=Middle Amerikaens|fam4=Netherlandic|nation=[[New Netherland]] </br> [[Tussenland]] </br> [[South Tussenland]] </br> [[Amerikaens Free State]] </br> [[Opdamsland]] </br> [[Boschland]]|minority=[[Mexico]] </br> [[Panama City]]|agency=[[Amerikaens Taelkomisie]]|ethnicity=[[Amerikaeners]]|fam1=Scythian|fam2=Germanic|fam3={{nowrap | West Germanic}}|fam4=Netherlandic}}
 
'''Amerikaens''' ([[Amerikaens#Phonology|[ˌɑ.miriˈkɒːnz]]]) is a West Germanic language primarily spoken throughout North America. Along with [[Afrikaans]] and [[Tauaans]], Amerikaens is a product of 17th-century Dutch settler colonialism. It is established as an official language in six sovereign states, several northwestern [[Mexico|Mexican]] provinces, and the ''de facto'' [[Colombia|Colombian]] territory of [[Panama City|Panama]]. Since 1951, Amerikaens has also been been recognized as the primary working language of the [[Association of North American Nations]].
'''Amerikaens''' (<small>Amerikaens:</small> /ɑː.mi.riˈkɑːns/) is a West Germanic language spoken across and native to vast swathes of North America. The language is a descendant of numerous [[Dutch languages|Dutch]] dialects introduced to [[New Netherland]] in the 17th century which were spoken by settlers from [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]]. Distance from Europe, the impact of indigenous and immigrant lects, as well as preservation of archaic dialectal features caused Amerikaens to develop distinguishing characteristics over the next few centuries. In 1910, a standardized orthography devised by the [[Amerikaens Taelkomisie]] and based on the prestigious [[New Amsterdam|New Amsterdammer]] accent was adopted.
 
It is the second most widely spoken Germanic language in the world, behind [[English language|English]] and after [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. Only since 1910 has Amerikaens been subject to legal regulation by the [[Taelkomisie]], allowing it to diverge greatly from its sister languages, eventually becoming mutually unintelligible with standard Dutch sometime in the 19th century. Its unique phonology, orthography, and grammar has been influenced by a diverse pool of European immigrants, indigenous languages of North America, the great geographic extent across which its dialects are spoken, and the rise of [[Anti-Atlanticism|anti-Atlanticist ideology]] in the late modern era.
Today, Amerikaens serves as the official language of a number of [[Amerikaener]] states such as [[New Netherland]], [[Tussenland]], [[Boschland]], and several others. Since 1951, it has also become one of the official languages of the [[Association of North American Nations]].
 
==History Nomenclature ==
Dialects of the Dutch language in the Americas were referred to as ''Nederduytsch'' or ''Lîg Duyts'' ('Low Dutch') prior to the late 18th century. With the independence of New Netherland, the term ''Amerikaens'' gained popularity as the [[Amerikaener|Amerikaener identity]] formed. The former two terms are still used extensively in academia, everyday speech, and regional dialects, especially when needed to distinguish it from other Germanic varieties.
 
==Phonology History ==
Due to Amerikaens phonology differing greatly by dialect, the ''Juys Mondordt'' (/jœus mondɔːrt/, 'correct speech') accent of [[New Amsterdam]] is widely considered to be the standard and most prestigious variety of the language. It has 21 consonants, 12 vowels, and 6 diphthong phonemes.
 
==== Consonants==Phonology ==
{{Main|Amerikaens phonology}}
Standard Amerikaens pronunciation, commonly known as the ''Juys Mondordt'' (<abbr>lit. 'p</abbr>roper speech'), is the preferred formal register of the language originating in the 19th-century speech of bourgeois communities in coastal [[New Netherland]].
 
=== <small>Consonants</small> ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |
! Labial
!Alveolar
! Post-alveolar
!Dorsal
! Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
| n
|
|ŋ
Line 27 ⟶ 31:
|-
! rowspan="2" |Plosive
!<small>voiceless{{abbr|vl.|Voiceless}}</small>
| p
| t
|
|k
|
|-
!<small>voiced{{abbr|v.|Voiced}}</small>
|b
|d
|
| g
|
|-
Line 49 ⟶ 53:
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!<small>voiceless{{abbr|vl.|Voiceless}}</small>
|f
|s
|ʃ{{ref|''Sch'' sound|2}}
|ʃ
|χ{{ref|''Cha'' sound|1}}
|χ
| h
|-
! <small>voiced{{abbr|v.|Voiced}}</small>
|v
|z
Line 67 ⟶ 71:
|l
|
| j
|
|-
Line 75 ⟶ 79:
|
|}
{{note|''Cha'' sound|1}}/χ/ formed as a merger of the Dutch /ɣ/ and /x/. Its voiced allophonic contexts is [ʁ], often mistaken as a rhotic due to its similarity to the French 'r'.
 
====Vowels Palatalization ====
Due to mutual conditioning with the umlaut process and the diverse origins of Amerikaens speakers, Dutch consonant sequences such as /sx/ were palatalized into /ʃ/{{note|''Sch'' sound|2}}. Palatal consonants such as /t͡ʃ/, previously analyzed as the sequence /tj/, became distinctly phonemic.
 
The traditional and most common Dutch diminutive, -''(t)je'', is too palatalized in Amerikaens, One of the most popular examples is the given name ''Annetje'' ('Annie'), which according to the 1910 Taelbück is to be written as ''Anne<u>tia</u>'' and pronounced [[Amerikaens#Phonology|[ɑnæt͡ʃə]]].
 
=== <small>Vowels</small> ===
{|
| style="vertical-align: top" |
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="2" | Front
! rowspan="3" |Central
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Back
|-
! rowspan="2" |<small>unrounded</small>
! rowspan="2" |<small>rounded</small>
|-
!<small>lax</small>
!<small>tense</small>
|-
! Close
|i
|y
|
|u
|
|uː
|-
!Mid
!Close-mid
|
|øː
|
|ø{{ref|Morphological umlaut|1}}
|ə
|o
|
|-
!Open-mid
!Mid
|ɛ
|œ
|œː
|ə
|ɔː
|
|
|ɔː
|-
!Open
Line 121 ⟶ 125:
| style="vertical-align: top" |
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |Front
! colspan="2" |Back
|-
!Fronting
!<small>fronting</small>
!Centering
!<small>backing</small>
!Backing
|-
|ui
!Close
| rowspan="3" |ɛ<sup>ə</sup>
|iu
|ui
|
|-
|ɔi
!Mid
|œu
|ɔi
| rowspan="2" |ɑu
|-
!Open
|
|ɑi
|ɑu
|}
|}
The Amerikaens vowel system, largely based on that of Hollandic Dutch, underwent a thorough counterclockwise vowel shift known as the ''Linksom''. It also developed features found in some littoral Flemish or Rhenish German dialects, such as morphological umlaut.
 
====Sound changesUmlaut from Dutch====
Amerikaens has developed a system of i-umlaut mutation in long back vowels. This feature initially failed to spread to western Dutch dialects, such as the dominant Hollandic. According to the ''Palatalsprickel'' theory proposed by linguist [[Hans Meißen]] in 1924, the palatalization of certain consonants is responsible for the mutation of radical vowels (i-umlaut) in Amerikaens and other trans-Rhenish Germanic languages. This change can originally be traced back to the diverse stock of European immigrants who arrived in America between 1650 and 1800.
The ''Juys Mondordt'' accent, as well as several other Amerikaens varieties, are incredibly phonologically distinct from the [[Dutch language|standard Dutch]] of [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]] and non-American [[Batavosphere]] countries. The phonological base for Amerikaens largely rests upon the lects spoken by the founding settlers — dialects which evidently share a strong similarity with modern dialects spoken in Utrecht, north Brabant, and south Holland. Generally, short front vowels were lowered while long front vowels were backed; meanwhile, back vowels were variously raised, rounded and umlaut-ed. This vowel shift can be described as counterclockwise (''Linksom''). Consonants remain relatively closer to Dutch despite some undergoing palatalization and mergers.
 
This mutation of /uː/ and /ɔː/, most commonly represented with /ø/{{note|Morphological umlaut|1}}, only occurs in closed syllables with all coda except ''-s(t)'', ''-(n)t'', or ''-r(t)'', which fail to trigger the preceding vowel and cause it to retain its backness. As a pure result of morphological umlaut, /ø/ is not a part of Amerikaens' underlying vowel inventory, unlike every other front vowel present in the language. Due to its proximity to other phonemic vowels, it may be realized as [ʏ], [ø̞], or even [ɵ] depending on the individual speaker and morphological context.
Additionally, consonants in the middle of words have experienced lenition. Most notably, it affects the suffix ''-tie''. Initially, the suffix was realized as /tsi/ but has since shifted solely to /si/. Deletion of final sounds (coda) is also common; final consonants and vowels, commonly ''n'' and ''e'', are elided. These changes are markedly reflected in modern Amerikaens orthography; for example, Dutch ''politie'' has become Amerikaens ''polisie'' ('police').
 
=== <small>List of major sound changes</small> ===
{|
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="verticaltext-align: topcenter;" |
!Dutch
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: center;"
!Amerikaens
!Context
 
!Sound change
|-
| rowspan="2" |eː
|All contexts
|i
|/eː/ > /i/
|-
|ɛ<sup>ə</sup>
|Syllable-medial
|/eː/ > /ɛ<sup>ə</sup>/
|-
|ɪ
| rowspan="6" |All contexts
|/ɪ/ >/ɛ/
|-
|/ɛ/ > /æ/
|æ
|-
| rowspan="2" |aː
|/aː/ > /ɔː/
|ɔː
|-
|/aː/ > /ɑː/
|-
|/ɔ/ > /o/
|o
|-
| rowspan="3" |oː
|/oː/ > /u/
|ɔː
|-
|uː
| rowspan="2" |Closed syllable, not before /t/, /s/, /nt/, /ɑr/
|/oː/ > /øː/
|-
| /u/rowspan="2" > /|øː/
|-
| rowspan="2" |uː
| All contexts
|/øː/ > /œː/
|-
|uː
|Closed syllable
|/ʏ/ > /ə/
|-
|ʏ
| rowspan="3" |Syllable-medial, final
|ə
|/œy/ > /œu/
|-
|œy
|/ɛi/ > /ɑi/
|œu
|-
|ɛi
|/eːu/ > /iu/
|ɑi
|-
|eːu
| rowspan="3" |All contexts
|iu
|/aːi/ > /ɔi/
 
|-
|aːi
|/oːi/ > /ui/
|ɔi
|-
|oːi
|/ɔu/ > /ɑu/
|}ui
| style="vertical-align: top" |
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: center;"
!Context
!Sound change
|-
|sx
| rowspan="4" |Syllable-initial
|/sx/ >rowspan="2" /|ʃ/
|-
|/sj/ > /ʃ/
|-
|tj
| /tj/ > /t͡ʃ/
|t͡ʃ
|-
|/ɦ/ > /h/
|h
|-
|ɣ
| rowspan="2" |All contexts
|/ɣ/ >rowspan="2" /|χ/
|-
|x
|/x/ > /χ/
 
|}
|}
 
== Orthography ==
Modern Amerikaens orthography is based on the rules published by the [[Taelkomisie]], specifically the [[Law of New Netherland|Placaet]] of 19 August 1910 and the proliferation of the Taelbück. It was created during an era of intense [[Amerikaeners|Amerikaener nationalism]] and [[anti-Atlanticism]]. Unlike other Latin orthographies, Amerikaens orthography departs heavily from tradition and Latinate conventions. It has also been noted as over-representing phonological processes such as palatalization and umlaut to compensate for the lack of it in its sister scripts such as those of [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Standard German]].
Modern Amerikaens orthography is based on a number of phonemic innovations and historical principles inherited from [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. The formal language was largely written in line with the mainstream Dutch orthographic standard until the late 19th century, when indigenous orthography gradually came to predominate in media, education, and government. In 1886, the popular [[New Netherland]] newspaper [[De Amerikaense Telegraef]] was among the first publications to diverge from the Dutch standard. In 1903, the Amerikaens Taelkomisie, a regulatory institution for the Amerikaens language, was established by Raedpensionaris [[Bartelmees van Haerst|Mees van Haerst]]. Seven years later, the first edition of the [[Taelbück]] was published, creating a standardized orthography for the language. Aside from the nativization of loan words and minor spelling corrections, Amerikaens orthography has remained largely unchanged since 1910.
 
=== <small>Spelling to sound correspondences</small> ===
Many features of the language's orthography is consistent with the tendencies of 17th century Dutch spelling and dialectal phonemic spelling, while others are inherited from other Germanic languages or are completely indigenous innovations.
{|
 
| style="vertical-align: top" |
*The digraphs ''oo'' and ''oe'' have been converted to ''ö'' and ''ü'' respectively. These letters were initially adopted from German to show i-umlaut in closed syllables but eventually came to replace the previous digraphs completely, whether the vowel is phonologically fronted or not. For example, both ''zön'' (/zøːn/, 'son', Dutch ''zoon'') and ''dü'' (/du/ 'do', Dutch ''doe'') use umlauted letters, despite only ''zön'' being phonologically umlauted.
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="text-align: center;"
*Numerous archaic spellings from early modern Dutch orthography have been preserved in Amerikaens, such as ''ae'' for ''aa'', ''ÿ'' for ''ij'', ''ey'' for ''ei'', ''uy'' for ''ui'', and ''ue'' for ''uu''. Additionally, one might occassionally find ''dt'' for final ''d, k'' for final ''ck'', and the doubling of ''m'' and ''l'' to ''mm'' and ''ll'' in the middle of words.
|+Consonants
*Many words formerly ending in -''f'' are instead spelled with a -''v'', showing either their derviation from inflected forms, the influence of Scandanavian orthography, or the consonant's phonological voicing.
!Spelling
 
!Main values
====Alphabet====
!Minor values
Amerikaens is generally recognized as having 44 distinct standard graphemes representing 39 phonemes and diphthongs, not including less common digraphs, trigraphs, and tetragraphs.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!A
!Ae
!Ai
!Au
!Auw
!B
!C
!D
!E
!Ey
!Eu
!F
!G
!Gh
!H
!I
!Î
!Ie
!J
!K
!L
!M
|-
|'''b'''
|/ɑ/
|/ɑː/
|/ɑi/
| colspan="2" |/ɑu/
|/b/
|/s/, /kp/
|-
|'''c'''
|/k/
|/s/, /t͡ʃ/
|-
|'''ch'''
|/ʃ/
|/χ/
|-
|'''ck'''
|/k/
|—
|-
|'''d'''
|/d/
|/t/
|/ɛ(<sup>ə</sup>)/, /ə/
|-
|/ɑi/
|'''dt'''
|/œː/
|/t/
|/d/
|-
|'''dsch'''
|/d͡ʒ/
|/t͡ʃ/
|-
|'''f'''
|/f/
|—
| colspan="2" |/g/, /χ/
|-
|'''g'''
|/g/
|/χ/
|-
|'''gh'''
|/χ/
| rowspan="4" |—
|-
|'''h'''
|/h/
|-
|/i/, /ɛ/
|'''j'''
|/i/, /ɛ<sup>ə</sup>/
|/i/
|/j/
|-
|'''k'''
|/k/
|-
|'''kh'''
|/χ/
|/k/
|-
|'''l'''
|/l/
| rowspan="3" |—
|-
|'''m'''
|/m/
|-
|'''mm'''
!N
|/m(ː)/
!Ng
!O
!Ö
!Oi
!Ou
!Ouw
!P
!Q
!R
!S
!Sch
!T
!U
!Ü
!Ue
!Uy
!Uw
!V
!W
!Ÿ
!Z
|-
|'''n'''
|/n/
|/ŋ/
|-
|/ɔː/, /o/
|'''ng'''
|/øː/, /u/, /o/
|/ɔiŋ/
|/n/, /ŋk/
| colspan="2" |/ɑu/
|-
|'''p'''
|/p/
|/b/
|-
|'''ph'''
|/f/
|/p/
|-
|'''q'''
|/k/
|—
|-
|'''qu'''
|/k/
|/ku/
|-
|'''r'''
|/r/
|—
|-
|'''s'''
|/s/
|/z/
|-
|'''sch'''
|/ʃ/
|—
|-
|'''t'''
|/t/
|/əd/
|-
|/øː/, /u/
|'''th'''
|/y/
|/œut/
|/yud/
|-
|'''tsch'''
|/t͡ʃ/
|/d͡ʒ/
|-
|'''v'''
|/v/
|/w/
|-
|/ɑi/, /i/
|'''w'''
|/w/
|/v/
|-
|'''z'''
|/z/
|/s/
|-
|'''zh'''
|/z/
|/ʒ/
|}
| style="vertical-align: top" |
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="text-align: center;"
|+Vowels
!Spelling
!Main values
!Minor values
|-
|'''a'''
|/ɑ/
|/ə/
|-
|'''ae'''
|/ɑː/
|/ɔː/
|-
|'''aey'''
|/ɑːi/
|—
|-
|'''ay'''
|/ɑi/
|/ɔi/
|-
|'''au, auw'''
|/ɑu/
|—
|-
|'''e'''
|/æ/
|/ɛ/
|-
|'''ey'''
|/ɑi/
|—
|-
|'''eu, euw'''
|/œ/
|/ø/
|-
|'''i'''
| rowspan="3" |/i/
|/ɛ/
|-
|'''î'''
|ɛ<sup>ə</sup>
|-
|'''ie'''
| rowspan="2" |—
|-
|'''ieuw'''
|/iu/
|-
|'''o'''
|/o/
|/ɔː/
|-
|'''ö'''
|/ɔː/
|/ø/
|-
|'''oy, öy'''
|/ɔi/
| rowspan="3" |—
|-
|'''ou, ouw'''
|/ɑu/
|-
|'''u'''
|/ə/
|-
|'''ü'''
|/u/
|/ø/
|-
|'''üy'''
|/ui/
| rowspan="3" |—
|-
|'''uy'''
|/œu/
|-
|'''ue'''
|/y/
|-
|'''ÿ'''
|/ɑi/
|/ə/
|}
|}
 
== Grammar ==
Compared to other Germanic languages, Amerikaens is considered weakly inflected, genderless, and by far more analytic of a language. The simplification of severalAmerikaens featuresgrammar is usually attributed to the language'sneed among early rolespeakers of distinct ethnolinguistic backgrounds to communicate for purposes such as atrade ''lingua— franca''thus, betweenfeatures severallike ethnolinguisticinflectional groupsendings became redundant.
 
==== Nouns and pronouns ====
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Amerikaens pronouns
! Person
!Subject
!Object
Line 343 ⟶ 464:
|-
|2nd singular
 
|Jÿ (''je'')
|Jou (''ju'')
Line 351 ⟶ 471:
|Hÿ (''he'')
|Hem (''em'')
| Hÿs (''hes'')
|-
|3rd singular, feminine
|Sÿ (''se'')
|Her (''er'')
Line 363 ⟶ 483:
|-
|2nd plural
 
| colspan="2" |Jul
|Juls
Line 375 ⟶ 494:
|Its
|}
Amerikaens only differs between the singular and plural forms, much like English. The plural form is usually created by the addition of the suffix ''-s'' (/s/ or /z/). If a word already ends in an ''s'', then an ''-en'' (/ən/) is added insteadappended in order to signify plurality.
 
Amerikaens also preserves the possessive genitive case from archaic Dutch declension unlike other Netherlandic varieties. Its survival beyond the early 18th century most probably was influenced by the [[English language]].
{{Blockquote|text='''Dutch''' <br> ''De vriend van de man'' lit. 'the friend of the man' <br> '''Amerikaens''' <br> ''Des mans friendt'' lit. 'the man's friend'}}
Like Dutch, Amerikaens pronouns retain case distinction; subject (nominative), object (accusative), and possessive (genitive). Pronouns occur in a stressed form and an unstressed form (shown in brackets). The stressed form retains the whole original vowel and is used mainly in formal situations or when distinction is needed.
 
==== Determiners ====
* Dutch ''de vriend van de man'' lit. 'the friend of the man' → Amerikaens ''des mans friendt'' lit. 'the man's friend'
Only two articles, the definitive ''de'' 'the' and the indefinitive ''în'' 'a(n)' exist in Amerikaens. They may be inflected in the genitive form (for example, ''Koninckrÿck <u>der</u> Nederlandts'' lit. '[[Netherlands|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]').
 
Like Dutch, Amerikaens pronouns retain case distinction; subject (nominative), object (accusative), and possessive (genitive). Pronouns occur in a stressed form and an unstressed form (shown in brackets). The stressed form retains the whole original vowel and is used mainly in formal situations or when distinction is needed.
====Determiners====
Only two articles, the definitive ''de'' 'the' and the indefinitive ''în'' 'a(n)' exist in Amerikaens. They may be inflected in the genitive form (for example, ''Koninckrÿck <u>der</u> Nederlandts'' lit. '[[Netherlands|Kingdom of the Netherlands]]').
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!Singular
Line 400 ⟶ 516:
|der
|îns (''<nowiki/>'ns'')
|}
 
Demonstratives are words used to distinguish entities being referred to. As grammatical gender does not exist, there are only four demonstrative determiners in Amerikaens. Proximal indicates that the entities are close to the speaker, while distal indicates that they are far away.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!Singular
Line 410 ⟶ 524:
!English
|-
! Proximal
| colspan="2" |dese
|This, these
Line 416 ⟶ 530:
!Distal
| colspan="2" |dat
|That, those
 
| That, those
|-
!Possessive
Line 425 ⟶ 538:
|}
 
==== Verbs ====
Much like its sister language [[Afrikaans]], Amerikaens does not inflect or conjugate, nor is there a distinction between the infinitive and present forms of verbs. In order to form different verb forms such as tense, aspect, and modality, the infinitive form of the verb is accompanied by a pronoun and an auxiliary verb. The below table uses the example of the verb ''ît'' (/it/, 'eat') in the perfect and continuous tenses.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
Line 433 ⟶ 546:
! rowspan="2" |English
|-
!<small>Pronoun</small>
!<small>Auxiliary verb</small>
!<small>Infinitive</small>
|-
! Present
| rowspan="6" |Ik
|∅
| rowspan="6" |ît
Line 445 ⟶ 558:
|-
!Past
| hab
|Ik at
|I ate
|-
!Future
|zal
|zhal
| Ik zal eten
| I will eat
|-
!Present continuous
| dü
|Ik ben aan het eten
| I am eating
|-
!Past continuous
Line 465 ⟶ 578:
|-
!Future continuous
|zhalzal dü
|Ik zal eten
|I will be eating
|}
 
== See also ==
*[[List of languages]]
*[[Amerikaener|Amerikaeners]]
 
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[[Category:Languages]]
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