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{{Infobox country|government_type=Constitutional monarchy and caliphate under a military dictatorship|image_flag=Flag of the Ottoman Empire.svg|conventional_long_name=Ottoman Sultanate|native_name=دولت عليه عثمانيه|capital=Konja|official_languages=[[Western Turkish|Ottoman]]|regional_languages=Arabic </br> Greek </br> Kurmandschi </br> Armenian </br> Aramaic|demonym=Ottoman </br> Turkish|largest_city=Aleppo|currency=Ottoman lira}}
{{VagueLoreNotice}}{{Nation
|common_name=Ottoman Empire
|full_name=The Sublime Ottoman State
|local_name=دولت عليه عثمانيه‎
|flag=Flag of the Ottoman Empire.svg
|map=
|established= 1299 (in Söğüt)
|motto=
|capital= Ḳosṭanṭīnīye (Constantinople)
|largest_city= Ḳosṭanṭīnīye (Constantinople)
|population=
|government_type= {{unbulleted_list | Caliphate (1517 - XXXX) |
Constitutional Monarchy |
Absolute Monarchy |
Military State}}
|area=
|languages= {{unbulleted_list | Ottoman Turkish (Official) | Persian (Diplomatically) | Arabic | Greek | many others}}
|currency=Gulden
|Population=}}
The '''Ottoman Empire''' (Ottoman Turkish: دولت عليه عثمانيه‎ ''Devlet-e Aliye-yi Uthmaniye'', <abbr>lit.</abbr> 'The Sublime Ottoman State'; Turkish: ''Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'') is a transcontinental empire that controlled much of Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa.
 
The '''Ottoman Sultanate''' ([[Western Turkish]]<ref>Officially, the Western Turkish language is referred to as ''Osmanlika'' (عثمانلوجه) in the [[Ottoman Sultanate]] and ''Rumelika'' (روم ايلى جه) in [[Rumelia]].</ref>: دولت عليه عثمانيه‎, ''Dewlet-e Alije-e Osmanije'', /dev.let.ɯ alijje.ɯ osˈmɑːnije/), commonly known as '''Turkey''' and formerly in English as the '''Ottoman Empire''', is a country located in western Asia. It borders several nations including [[Russia]], [[Persia]], [[Rumelia]], the Mesopotamian states, Nejd, and the Hejaz.
==History==
The Ottoman Empire was founded as a small beylik just northwest of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. Over the 14th century, they had crossed into Europe, relocated their capital, and assimilated smaller Turkic states either through conquest or declarations of allegiance. By the 15th century, the state grew into a mighty empire spanning the Balkans, northern Africa, and the middle east. In the subsequent centuries, the Ottomans began to move more precariously, shifting their focus from expansion to stabilizing their vast empire and preserving its power in the region.
 
Founded in the 13th century, the empire became a constitutional monarchy in 1888, followed by the rise of the [[Orkhonism|Orkhonists]], who governed the country until the partition of the Ottoman state after the [[Great War]]. Since the 1930s, the Sultanate, has been largely dominated by the Iskenderohlu family's military government alongside a number of minor cliques.
=== Late Ottoman Empire ===
 
==History==
==== The Great Turkish War, and the Austro-Turkish Wars ====
{{Main|Ottoman history}}
In the 1680s, a series of conflicts erupted between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League consisting of the Holy Roman Empire, Poland-Lithuania, Venice, Russia, called the Great Turkish War. In the resulting war, the Turks lost their hold in Hungary.
From the late 1650s to around 1700, the Ottoman government was dominated by the ethnic Albanian Koepruelue family and the Sultan Mehmed IV, who ruled for almost half a century. The Great Turkish War of the late 17th century pitted the Ottomans against numerous European rivals, led to the loss of much of Hungary to the [[Austria|Austrian Empire]], the Morea to [[Venice]], and Steppe lands to [[Poland]].
 
The Turks would lose even more territory in Europe following the subsequent Austro-Turkish Wars in the 1730s, when Austria annexed Banat, Slavonia, and Serbia in the resulting treaty. These defeats pushed the Ottomans into a path of reform and establishing closer ties with the rest of the European states to improve their diplomatic standing among the nations in the coming years.
 
=== An Era of Prestige ===
 
==== Early Reforms & Pax Ottomanica (1748-1790) ====
Shortly after the end of the Austro-Turkish Wars came the rise of Bayezid III the Pleasant into power. Bayezid III witnessed the slow decline of Ottoman territory and wished to pull the empire away from what he called the "path to decrepitude." The reform period started when Bayezid issued the 1747 Edict of Reorganization. Under the reform period, the Ottomans established better diplomatic ties with Genoa, France, and Great Britain. Bayezid III imported minds and talents from western Europe, most notably Genoa and Florence (Tuscany). His reign was most prominently known for the importation and translation of works of science, philosophy, and literature from French, English, Dutch, and German sources into not only Ottoman Turkish (which was used by the elite) but also in vernacular Turkish (primarily spoken in rural areas). This period was known as the ''Ottoman Renaissance'' or, more widely, ''Pax Ottomanica.'' It was an unprecedented era of political, economic, and cultural prominence during which the empire of the Ottomans ranked among the most powerful and influential in Europe and Asia. Pax Ottomanica would continue to the reign of Bayezid III's successor, Mahmud.
 
==== Victory in the Franco-Ottoman War (1811-1814) ====
In the midst of the French revolutionary period, Pax Ottomanica was broken in 1811 when the French Republic declared war on the Ottoman Empire. After defeating the archduchy of Austria and the rest of the Holy Roman Empire during the French Revolutionary Wars, the autocratic leader of the French, Austinu Spiga, shifted his focus on realizing his ambition of toppling the famed Ottoman Empire. For three-quarters of a century, the Ottomans had been at peace. Now their military might was once again tested, this time by the French.
 
The Ottoman military was not considered the best at the time. However, their familiarity with the region, plus a series of tactical and logistical blunders by the French, gave the Ottomans an advantage. This gave them a string of victories in battles on the Balkans. Eventually, with Austinu Spiga's grip over Austria loosening, the Ottomans were able to push through and liberate Austria from the French. By 1813, the combined strengths of Austrian, Ottoman, and British forces quickly began to overrun French-occupied territory in Europe.
 
The wars ended in defeat for the French and victory for the Ottomans and their allies. During the Congress of Vienna in 1814, the Ottomans had a firm upper hand on the negotiation table due to their efforts in the war. They were able to gain favorable concessions from France, including the payment of a huge indemnity and the cession of the island of Malta to the Ottomans. The end of the war also ushered in a new era of cooperation between Austria and the Ottomans, the former being indebted to the latter. The aftermath of the war gave the Ottoman Empire a renewed (and inflated) sense of nationalistic fervor, which seemed to negate the earlier theses of Ottoman decline.
 
The Tulip period of the early 18th century, named for the imperial court's love of tulips and the rise of the [[Netherlands|Dutch empire]], saw a cultural renaissance in the country. Territories in eastern Europe, namely Slavonia, Serbia, and Banat, were lost to Austria in the 1730s. After the war, administrations under Bejasid III and Mahmud I promulgated the Edict of Reorganization, which drastically reoriented the Ottoman Empire's diplomatic policies and ideology, as well as fostering economic and social transformation.
=== Late 19th century, and the Ottoman Decline ===
Contrary to expectation, the Ottomans saw stagnation and languished for the rest of the 19th century. The prestige brought with their victories during the French revolution made the absolutist Ottoman state complacent. This became evident during the late 19th century when the empire's military prowess was tested in two simultaneous wars against the Russians and British.
 
The 19th century is often called the Ottomans' ''Asr-e-Tebdil'', the 'century of change'. ''Pax Ottomanica'' was broken in 1811, when [[Augustine Spiga|Spiga]]'s [[France|French republic]] declared war on the Ottomans, bringing them into the [[Augustine Wars]]. Emerging victorious three years later in the Congress of Vienna, the empire asserted their dominance over the eastern Mediterranean with the annexation of the Venetian Morea and [[Malta]]. From 1820 to 1836, the Ottomans constructed the Suez Canal alongside [[Britain]] and [[Genoa]]. In 1837, the Treaty of Adrianople guaranteed British ships free access. In 1884, Russia and Austria went to war against the Ottomans. This had disastrous consequences, including the breakaway of Moldavia, Wallachia, and [[Illyria]], the Austrian annexation of Bosnia, and Russia's capture of Bessarabia and the Crimean Khanate. A year later, the Ottoman state broke the Treaty of Edirne with the United Kingdom, leading to the Anglo-Ottoman War of 1885 and the British occupation of [[Egypt]].
===== Russo-Ottoman War (1884-1885) =====
The Russo-Ottoman War of 1884 erupted due to Russian ambitions in controlling the Black Sea. The Russians hoped to capture Constantinople, but the Ottomans were able to leverage their terrain advantage and successfully defended the city. However, the constant attacks by the Russians eventually started to overwhelm the Ottoman military. In early 1885, the Ottomans also faced another threat in the south: the British, who had ambitions to take control of Egypt. This pressured the Ottomans to sue the Russians for peace. In the resulting Treaty of Angorra (1885), the Ottomans ceded the Crimean peninsula to Russia, ending the nearly four hundred years of Ottoman presence in the region.
 
After the defeats of the past decade, the Grand Congress was established in 1888, transforming the empire into a constitutional monarchy. Two ideologies vied for power in the late 19th century; Hatayism and [[Orkhonism]]. The latter eventually succeeded in gaining significant influence in the government in 1903 and establishing a close alliance with the new [[Bejasid IV]] in 1910. [[Hamza Kojundschu]], the leader of the Orkhonist party, aimed to create an Ottoman national identity through extensive Turkification of Syria, Mesopotamia, Rumelia, and other majority-minority regions. After Konjundschu's unexpected death in 1914, Oguen Oesstekin was appointed Grand Vizier. His revanchist administration promoted authoritarianism and ultramonarchism, renewing territorial claims on the Crimea and Egypt. In 1929, the increasingly militarized state established an alliance with their former enemies Austria and France, creating the [[Factions of the Great War|Tripartite Coalition]].
===== Anglo-Turkish War (1885) =====
Since the 1870s, the British already had solid ambitions in taking Egypt, a strategic control point, from the Ottomans. The war was spurred on by a recommendation from British secretary of war, Wendell Monaghan, who reported the outdated military tactics used by the Ottomans in their fight against the Russians, promising an easy victory. In 1885, the British sent an expedition force to Egypt, shortly gaining control of the region. Multiple skirmishes between the Ottomans and British ensued, but the war quickly ended in the same year with the war-exhausted Ottomans relinquishing control of Egypt.
 
In the spring of 1935, Oesstekin's government declared war on Russia, beginning the [[Great War]]. In the early phase of the war, the Ottoman military occupied large swathes of southern Russia, the Crimea, and Egypt. The country also supported Austria's invasion of Poland and Orkhonist [[Turkestan]]'s independence war against the Russians. In 1938, Tripolitania and Tunisia fell to enemy forces, followed by a series of rapid and successful revolts in Mesopotamia and Arabia. The Russian capture of Constantinople in April led to Ottoman surrender. Following their defeat, the empire's European territories broke away and formed the [[Rumelia|Rumelian National Republic]], while Constantinople was made a Russo-Rumelian condominium. The Congress of Amsterdam of 1939 stripped the Ottoman Empire of their lands in Mesopotamia, Arabia, Africa, Europe, and Cyprus.
=== Ottoman Reform Period ===
 
== Government and Politics ==
==== Establishment of the Ottoman Grand Congress (1888) ====
The humiliating defeats in 1885 served as a wake-up call for the empire. The wars and hardships associated with the aftermath pushed the Ottoman state into reform. In 1888, mounting pressure from the public led to the establishment of the Ottoman Grand Congress. Thus started the Ottoman reform period, putting the people at the forefront of running the country along with the Ottoman sultan.
 
== Demographics ==
==== Clash of Ideologies: Hatayism and Orkhonism ====
The period between 1890-1901 saw two large political movements vying for power in the Grand Congress. The Hatayists (named after the province of Hatay) advocated for the secularization of the state and social equality. The Orkhonists, on the other hand, promoted the Turkification of the state. Both groups were nationalist by definition but had different means for achieving national ambitions.
 
== List of leaders ==
==== Orkhonists seize power (1903) ====
In 1910, the new sultan, Bejazid IV, rose to power after the death of his power. Bejazid, while claiming to have a centrist stance like his predecessor, was heavily sympathetic to the Orkhonists. Soon enough, a political alliance between the Orkhonists and Bejazid IV formed, making them more popular among the public. The Orkhonists were able to capture the majority in the Grand Congress. The Orkhonist party, led by Hamza Kojundschu, enacted multiple laws to realize their ambitions. Among them is the ''Turkish Settlement and Nationality Law'', which aimed to create an Ottoman national identity by using Islam as a unifying force, and by resettling Turkish-speaking families to far-flung regions where they only make a minority, and vice-versa. The use of the common Turkish language was also promoted, instead of Ottoman Turkish, which had a lot of Arabic and Persian influences. Through these steps, Kojundschu hoped to meld all the groups in the empire into one people: the Ottoman nationality. Throughout the early 19th century, areas around Jazira, Macedonia, and coastal Levantine cities would shift towards a more Turkish identity.
 
===== ChristianList Immigrationof Wavemonarchs =====
{| class="wikitable"
Despite heavy national enthusiasm for the new reforms, one group became alienated: the Ottoman Christians. Historically, Ottoman Christians were considered ''dhimmi'' (meaning "protected") under Ottoman law in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the jizya tax. However, the new policies of the Orkhonist government severely limited their opportunities inside the empire. The Russian Empire, which was seen as the traditional protector of the Christians in the Ottoman empire, issued diplomatic protests and denounced the new government. However, this did very little to stop the new policies from being enacted. These caused waves of emigration of Orthodox Greeks, Armenians, and Christian Arabs into Russia, and more often into the Americas.
!Name
! colspan="2" |Reign
|-
|Mehmed IV
|1642
|1693
|-
|Ahmed II
|1693
|1710
|-
|Mustafa II
|1710
|1728
|-
|Bejasid III
|1728
|1748
|-
|Mahmud I
|1748
|1774
|-
|Ahmed III
|1774
|1783
|-
|Mahmud II
|1783
|1784
|-
|Ahmed IV
|1784
|1806
|-
|Mehmed V
|1806
|1819
|-
|Mustafa III
|1819
|1837
|-
|Selim III
|1837
|1863
|-
|Osman III
|1863
|1884
|-
|Selim II
|1884
|1910
|-
|Bejasid IV
|1910
|1936
|}
 
== See also ==
==== Ottoman Ambitions in the 1910s-1920s ====
{{Nations of the World}}
Since the death of Kojundschu in 1914, the Ottoman empire began to slide to a dictatorial form of government gradually. To maintain their popularity, the Orkhonist party began to consolidate military power and looked outward. Anti-Russian and Anti-British revanchist propaganda was scattered throughout the empire. They renewed a territorial claim in Crimea (which was taken by Russia during the 1884-1885 Russo-Ottoman War), after the sultan's familial relations with the old Crimean Giray dynasty. They also promoted the idea of a Greater Ottoman state, one that controlled Egypt and therefore controlled the Mediterranean. Throughout the 1920s, the state would enter a rapid pace of industrialization and militarization. They found an ally in Austria and France, who also had their own resentments against the British and Russians. In 1929, the three states formed the Tripartite Coalition, which strengthened their relationship and cooperation.{{Nations of the World}}
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