History of France: Difference between revisions

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== Premodern history ==
Inhabited since the Paleolithic era, the territory of Metropolitan [[France]] was settled by Celtic tribes known as Gauls during the Iron Age. Rome annexed the area in 51 BC, leading to a distinct Gallo-Roman culture that laid the foundation of the French language. The Germanic Franks arrived in the fifth century and formed the Kingdom of Francia, which became the heartland of the Carolingian Empire. The Treaty of Verdun in 843 partitioned the empire, with West Francia becoming the Kingdom of France in 987. Since then, France has seen the rule of different dynasties, eventually leading to the Bourbon dynasty coming into power during the 16th century. By then, France started to establish a burgeoning worldwide colonial empire.
 
== Philippine period: (1715-1794)1714–1795 ==
 
==== RuleThe reign of Philip VII (1714-1763) ====
{{Main|Philip VII}}
[[Louis XIV]] of France passed away in 1714. His heir presumptive was ''Dauphine Victoire'' Philip, Duke of Anjou, would ascend to the throne as [[Philip VII]].
 
== AugustineThe periodAugustine (1795-1815)Wars ==
=====French Succession Crisis of 1714=====
The unfortunate death of Louis the Great Dauphine, King Louis XIV's eldest son, had caused changes in the French line of succession. Next in line was the Great Dauphine's brother, Philip d'Anjou. Initially having a claim to the throne of Spain, the Spanish had installed [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_VI,_Holy_Roman_Emperor Charles III] as King. Philip d'Anjou thus retained his right to inherit the French throne.
 
Upon his father's death in 1714, Philip d'Anjou became King of France, ruling as Philip VII. France under his rule would see an increased resentment against [[United Kingdom|the British]] and [[Austria|the Austrians]], whom he believed had manipulated and strong-armed him out of his right to inherit the Spanish throne. Under his rule, France's colonial ventures in North America were expanded. More settlers were sent to prevent French claimed territory from being absorbed by Britain and the Dutch Republic.
 
==== France in the Great Silesian War ====
{{Main|History_of_Europe#Great_Silesian_War_(1750-1755)|l1 = Great Silesian War}}
 
=====Relations with the Prussians=====
Philip VII also sought closer ties with Prussia, a burgeoning German power that threatened and challenged Austria. In 1748, Prussia's Frederick II had confided to Philip VII about his desire of taking the region of Silesia from the Austrians. Philip VII pledged his support to Frederick II, eventually leading to the Great Silesian War (1750-1755) and the ultimate demise of France and Philip VII's prestige.
 
== Augustine period (1795-1815) ==
{{Main|Augustine Wars}}
 
== ValentineThe periodValentines: (1815-1874)1815–1873 ==
{{Main|House of Bourbon-Monaco}}
The Ligurian branch of the Bourbons, known as the House of Bourbon-Grimaldi became the new ruling house of France in 1815. They held the three major titles of Duke of Orléans, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Valentinois Duke of Valentinois], and Prince of Monaco, giving them influence and prowess in court.
After the Augustine Wars, the [[House of Bourbon-Monaco|Grimaldi dynasty]], based in the small principality of Monaco, became the seventh and latest ruling royal house of [[France]] in 1815.
 
==== Rise to power ====
In 1733, Princess Louise Hippolyte - the reigning sovereign of Monaco - married the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans_(1703%E2%80%931752) Duke of Orléans], a French noble and decendent of King Louis XIII through his second son Philippe I, Duke of Orléans. He took the throne of Monaco in 1738. Antoine II, Prince of Monaco, greatly developed the family's reputation among the French by spending the majority of his time in Versailles. This would come back to bite him, as he was murdered during the [[French Revolution#Murders of Versailles|French Revolution]] in 1795.
 
His brother, Antoine III, would then presume control of his brother's titles. He begrudgingly cooperated with the Augustinian regime while silently maintaining ties to the traditional French aristocracy. In 1800, his son, the Marquis of Baux Louis Giuseppe married the a legitimate great-great daughter of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV Louis the Great], ''fille de France'' [[Princess Marie Blanchefleur]] du Bourbon. Upon Antoine III's death in 1803, the now-Louis III ascended to princedom and dukeship - now with a more senior Bourbon princess at his side. The House of Bourbon-Grimaldi cooperated with [[Austria]], the [[Rhineland|Palatinate Germans]], and [[Netherlands|the Dutch]] in order to ultimately oust [[Augustine Spiga]] from power in the 1810s.
 
===== The Strike at Fountainebleau =====
From 1809, Louis III made strategic alliances with the Duchess of Joyeuse and members of the French gentry. When Augustine's regime fell to their knees, the Monacan prince hired a disgruntled soldier named [[Cesar de Thury]] to murder the Count of Provence, who he saw as a major threat to his planned ascension. On a September afternoon in 1814, the Count of Provence was shot while leaving the Palace of Foutainebleau for Paris. He was then bludgeoned repeatedly in the head and his horse set on fire. The assassin, de Thury, was assaulted by the Count's bodyguards before biting one's finger off. He then promptly escaped but was arrested in Sens.
 
===== Chosen as the new dynasty =====
The Monacan prince, Louis III, reached Paris with his wife before any of the more senior Bourbon heirs had. He then negotiated with ambasors from all of the European Great Powers for several months, before being recognized as the new King of France in 1815. This decision was took when it became clear that King [[Henri V]], the more senior Bourbon monarch in the Americas, had minimal intention of returning to Paris under the current circumstances.
 
Louis III of Monaco was coronated as [[Louis XV]] of France in the June of 1815, choosing Louis as the primary and only regnal name of his line. The the House of Bourbon-Grimaldi was commonly referred to as the Valentine dynasty (French: ''dynastie Valentinoise'', Genoese: ''dinastîa Valentìn'') after one of their ducal titles, the Duke of Valentinois.
 
==== Reign of Louis XV ====
 
===== Le Marais Scandal =====
 
===== Independence of Saint-Domingue =====
{{Main|Saint-Domingue#Reform_period_(1815-1862)|l1 = Saint Domingue's independence}}
 
==== Reign of Louis XVI ====
 
===== Colonialism in the Niger Delta =====
With the collapse of European slave markets in the 1840s, French merchants ventured into the Niger Delta, aiming to enter the palm oil industry. In the following decades, France would appoint a Consul-General to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalabari_Kingdom Calabare]. The discovery of quinine in the 1850s reduced the risk of lethal disease and allowed French explorers and merchants to expand their colonial interests. In 1858, the Belmont expedition established relations with the principalities of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zazzau#Early_Hausa_kingdom Zazzau] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Kano Kano].
 
==== Rise to powerGenealogy ====
== Second Republic (1874-1877) ==
In 1733, Princess Louise Hippolyte - the reigning Grimaldi sovereign of Monaco - married Louis I, Duke of Orléans, a high-ranking French noble and descendant of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIII Louis XIII]. This would establish the House of Bourbon-Monaco. The Duke would serve as regent for his wife until her death in 1738, when he became [[Louis II, Prince of Monaco]]. [[Philip VII]] thereupon recreated the title of Valentinois by letters patent for the Prince.
 
Their son, [[Antoine II, Prince of Monaco|Antoine II]], would become Prince of Monaco, Duke of Orléans, and Duke of Valentinois in 1759 upon his father's death. Born in Paris, the Prince would spend the majority of his life in northern France, building his family's reputation among the nobles of Versailles. After he was killed during the [[Augustine Wars]] in 1796, he would be succeeded by his brother, [[Antoine III, Prince of Monaco|Antoine III]]. In 1800, his son, Louis, the Marquis of Baux, married a high-ranking descendant of [[Louis XIV]], thus establishing himself as one of the preeminent candidates for King of France.
====Communard Revolution====
New egalitarian ideas compilled into an ideology called communardism rocked France in the 1870s. Coming from France's intellectual circles, the concept of ''communardism'' would win over the French public's following and lead to the bloody murder of King Louis in 1873. The heir died shortly after due to a falling accident. With the monarchy rapedly declining in popularity, the radical communard party ''Société des Amis de la République'' (often shortened to the ''Société'') occupied the power vacuum. The party leader, [https://wiki.rosestulipsandliberty.com/wiki/%C3%89tienne%20Th%C3%A9venet Étienne Thévenet], declared the establishment of the Communard Republic of France, espousing hardline communard ideals and rejecting all forms of religion and aristocracy. Thévenet envisions a united Europe that transcends racial and linguistic boundaries, united under the ideals of communardism.
 
After [[Augustine Spiga]] was ousted from power, the Bourbon-Monaco dynasty's candidature was endorsed by [[Austria]], the new [[Netherlands|Dutch kingdom]], and several German electoral families. When it became clear that [[Henri V]], the Bourbon successor in [[New France]], would not return to Versailles, the young Marquis of Baux was crowned [[Louis XV|Louis XV of France]]. The family would informally become known as the Valentine dynasty (''dynastie Valentinoise''), after one of their ducal titles.
As the first step to achieve this, Thévenet looked to the tiny principality of Belgique to the northeast. Belgique was a pre-dominantly French-speaking Wallonian principality and already had a growing communard movement within. Thévenet supported Belgique's communard insurrection in late 1874 with the French treasury, and the revolution became successful. Belgique was incorporated as a new ''département'' of France by Christmas eve of 1874. The Christmas Uprising is a regional holiday in the present-day French sudivision of Belgique.
 
==== Communard Revolution==: 1873–1877 ==
==== 1877 Coup and British intervention ====
[[Louis XVII]] of the [[House of Grimaldi|Grimaldi dynasty]], King of France, was murdered by communard rebels in 1873. Soon after, the political party the Society of the Allies of the Republic (SAR) took over the government and declared a republic in the 1874 Statement of Senlis, rejecting traditional French religious and class structures. [[Étienne Thévenet]], the new republic's leader, invaded and annexed the short-lived [[Grand Belgic Duchy|Belgic Duchy]] in December of the same year. The Duchy's incorporation is celebrated annually in the region as the Christmas Uprising.
Great Britain began to grow worried about the new government's success. In 1876, attempts by the ''Société'' to spread the revolution to central Europe and the Italian states were made but were stopped by an alliance of European powers led by Austria and Britain. By early 1877, the radical ''Société des Amis de la République'' was removed out of power by the ''Parti Communard de France'' (PCF), a moderate Communard faction, with the support of Great Britain. The PCF established the [https://wiki.rosestulipsandliberty.com/wiki/France 3rd French Republic] and sought peaceful coexistence with the British and other European powers. This led to a mending of relations between the British and France.
 
However, in 1876, the Society were revealed to have attempted to manipulate elections in Britain, causing the British government to sponsor the Society's rivals, the Communard Party of France (PCF). In 1877, the Party orchestrated a coup with British support, establishing the Third Republic. During this period of turmoil, the Royal British Navy occupied numerous French colonies in the Caribbean and Asia.
During the crisis, Great Britain was able to occupy several French possessions in the Caribbean and India. However, the new government was allowed to keep its new ''département'' of Belgique, as was the will of the local Walloon populace.
 
== ThirdThe young Republic: ''la véritable'' (1877-1908)1877–1908 ==
[[File:RTL FranceIn1895.png|thumb|370x370px|French colonial holdings in the early 20th century.|link=|left]]
 
== ''Le Avant Garde'': 1908–1935 ==
== Dictatorial period (1908-1938) ==
While technicallyDuring the later half of the Third Republic era, Dictatorialseveral autocrats came to power in France, strayedcollectively greatlyknown fromas members of the republicpolitical organization 's'[[Le Avant Garde]]'', which consisted of various influential pro-military, originalanti-British communardFrench valuesnationalists.
 
====TheSaunier shiftand towardsDesmarais: authoritarianism1908–1928====
In Europe, France's diplomatic situation was precarious. Byat 1900,the theystart were still friendly and indebted toof the British20th forcentury. helpingThey themremained establishcordial their government inwith the 1870s. However[[Britain|British]], constantthough British intervention in areas of France's sphere of interestinfluence started to strainstrained relations. ThisTensions wascame furtherto a exacerbatedboil when Britainthe sanctionedBritish and supportedsanctioned the [[Venice|Venetian]] annexation of the Papal Adriatic in 1908. This catalysedcatalyzed thea shift towards an anti-British political climate only a fewmerely months before the French Nationalelections Electionsof 1908.
=====Term of President Saunier =====
In Europe, France's diplomatic situation was precarious. By 1900, they were still friendly and indebted to the British for helping them establish their government in the 1870s. However, constant British intervention in areas of France's sphere of interest started to strain relations. This was further exacerbated when Britain sanctioned and supported the Venetian annexation of the Papal Adriatic in 1908. This catalysed the shift towards an anti-British political climate only a few months before the French National Elections.
 
In November 1908, [[Hervé Saunier]], a staunchnationalistic anti-British writerauthor and professor fromresiding in Paris, was proclaimed as France'sthe newnext presidentPresident. Saunier was known as more of aan theoristideologue than a statesman and subsequently delegated authorities to political allies. In 1910, moreSaunier concernedappointed withhis theclose ideologicalaffiliate aspectsand former Governor-General of runningKampuchea [[François Desmarais]] to the position of Grand Marshal, the highest military rank in France. AsHis suchappointment saw the military increasingly begin to involve itself in national politics, striking down opponents of Saunier oftenthrough delegatedviolence, dutiesmanipulation, and appointedintimidation. fellowIn party1914, membersSaunier towas runreelected theas government'sPresident variousin institutions,an alsoelection creatingwidely newpurported onesto duringhave hisbeen tenure.manipulated by the French military.
====Rule of Desmarais (1910-1928) ====
In 1910, Saunier appointed [[François Desmarais]] as the Grand Marshal of the French Republican Military. Desmarais was a political ally of Saunier, who previously served as Governor-General of [https://wiki.rosestulipsandliberty.com/wiki/Kampuchea Kampuchea] before returning to France in 1909. Saunier believed that a robust military apparatus was required to protect France's republican institutions. Ironically, Desmarais' appointment saw the increase of the military's role in French governance. Desmarais put down political opposition against Saunier or the Communard Party. Intimidation and political coercion were commonplace throughout the 1910s. During the 1914 elections, [[Hervé Saunier]] was reelected to the presidency, but his victory was widely contested. It was widely believed that Desmarais had intimidated his opponents and the tallying committee to secure his power. Regardless of this, Desmarais' was still widely popular among the public.
 
In 1919, Desmarais and Saunier hadbegan a political feud over Desmarais' increasingrising influence and the jeopardization of Saunier's reputation. Shortly after this falling out, Desmarais founded ''Le Avant Garde'', a political alliance consistingclique of anti-British,several prohigh-ranking nationalistic military nationalistsand government officials. The politicalclique tensionsthen culminated inorchestrated a coup d'etat staged by Desmarais and the armyétat on September 2, 1919September, only a year before the nextnational elections. [[François Desmarais]] abolishedwould theestablish presidency.martial Desmarais'rule, popularity withabolishing the Frenchpresidency peopleof gaveFrance himand his legitimacy to rule. He would leadruling as the Grand Marshal of France until his ultimate demisedeath in 1928.[[File:RTLCamille Laframboise.jpg|alt=|thumb|249x249px|link=]]
====The rise of Laframboise: 1928–1935====
Desmarais' successor, famed general [[Camille Laframboise]], succeeded him as Grand Marshal. Camille Laframboise's domestic policies proved to be harsher than his predecessor's, alienating supporters. Despite this, he proved to remain popular among the political elite of France. He was known as ''Le Maréchal'' abroad and was often the subject of political caricatures in the British empire and the Italian states.
 
Laframboise established a close alliance with [[Austria]] in the early 1930s, keen on stalling the expansion of British influence in southern Europe.
====Raspberry Rule (1928-1939)====
[[File:RTLCamille Laframboise.jpg|alt=|thumb|204x204px|Grand Marshal of France, Camille Laframboise.|link=https://wiki.rosestulipsandliberty.com/wiki/File:RTLCamille_Laframboise.jpg]]Before his death, he appointed [[Camille Laframboise]], a military general and political ally of Desmarais, to succeed him as Grand Marshal. Camille Laframboise's domestic policies proved to be harsher than his predecessor, alienating some supporters of ''Le Avant Garde''. Despite this, he was still moderately popular among the communards of France.
 
He was known to be more diplomatically-minded than Desmarais. Under his rule, France warmed relations with Austria due to the common threat of British influence in the European mainland (primarily Italy). Laframboise was known to the west as ''Le Maréchal''; he and his strongman persona was commonly a subject of political mockery and caricature in British and Italian spheres of influence.
====The Great War====
{{Main|The_Great_War#French_Communard_intervention_and_invasion_of_Savoy-Piedmont_(July-August_1935)|l1 = French role in the Great War}}
 
== RemiseFrance dein L'Étatthe (1938-1950)Great War ==
{{Main|The Great War|l1 = The Great War}}
[[File:TripartiteFate France.png|left|thumb|299x299px|Depiction of the British, Dutch, Portuguese and Rheinish occupation zones of France, the [[Paris|Parisian]] occupation zone, and the fate of the Italian Alpine states.]]
 
=== Occupation''Remise ofde Francel'état'': (1938-1944)1939–1950 ===
The period of French history termed the ''Remise de l'état'' is characterized by the five-year occupation of France by foreign forces after the Great War, the brief Fourth Republic (1941-1949), the [[Cavendish Affair]], and the short rule and subsequent fall of [[Jean-Jacques Caillat]].
After the defeat of the [[Factions of the Great War#Tripartite Coalition|Tripartite Coalition]], the French state was jointly occupied by the [[Netherlands]], [[Rhineland]], [[Portugal]], and the [[United Kingdom]]. The states of [[Arpitania]] and [[Piedmont]] were liberated their government were reorganized under the oversight of the British, while [[Lombardy]]'s lost Alpine territories were returned.
 
==== Occupation of France: to 1944 ====
In the closing of the [[The Great War|Great War]], Grand Marshal Camille Laframboise was murdered during the Battle of Paris. The First Auxerre Convention in early 1939 formally disestablished the French Communard Republic.
[[File:TripartiteFate France.png|thumb|299x299px|Depiction of the British, Dutch, Portuguese and Rheinish occupation zones of France, the [[Paris|Parisian]] occupation zone, and the fate of the Italian Alpine states.]]After the defeat of the [[Factions of the Great War#Tripartite Coalition|Tripartite Coalition]], the French state was jointly occupied by the [[Netherlands]], [[Rhineland|the Rhineland]], [[Portugal]], and the [[United Kingdom]]. The [[First Auxerre Convention (1939)|First Auxerre Convention]] disestablished the Third Republic and forced France to cede certain territories. The states of [[Arpitania]] and [[Piedmont]] were liberated their government were reorganized under theBritish oversight of the British, while. [[Lombardy]]'s lost Alpine territories were returned to them as well.
 
TheWithin fourthe occupying powers had different objectivesRhenish and motivations in theirDutch occupation ofzones, France.the Theoccupying Netherlandsforces andrapidly Rhineland went on a policy of dismantling French industry andde-industrialized, hauling the means of production back to theirthe country,Netherlands drastically stammeringand the industrial output in their occupation zonesRhineland. The British focused on political rather than economic goals, putting in placetook measures to decrease the influence of ''[[communardism'',]] and propping upendorsing local administrativepro-British leaderspoliticians. thatIn werethe aligned tosouthwest, the British. The Portuguese hadmaintained a more passiveforgiving policy, which focused on thecarefully rebuilding and repairing of France.
 
AllIn occupying powers1941, however, agreed to eventually unify France underwas areunited single government, and they did so in 1941, formally endingas the occupationFourth of FranceRepublic. However, the former occupying nationspowers stillmaintained had a hugelarge military presence in the countrypresences until 1944., Henriwhen Dormoy,elections awere supporterheld offor the Cordialfirst League,time wasin appointedthree todecades. the presidency of France.
 
==== FourthDormoy's Frenchgovernment: Republic1944–1949 ====
[[Henri Dormoy]] won the 1944 elections, narrowly beating his opponents. His administration was determined to curb the influence of communardism, further liberalized the country, and granted clemency to political prisoners held captive during the rule of Laframboise. In 1946, Dormoy's ministry revoked the ban on [[national republicanism]] in France, allowing national republican parties to run in elections.
 
In 1945, the [[Cavendish Affair]] rocked France. A group of elites, involving several banks, clergymen, and politicians, aimed to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France with the [[New France|New French]] noble, the Count of Soissons, floated as the new monarch. The scandal implicated Catalan G. Grimaldi, the Bourbon-Monaco pretender to the French throne, Prime Minister [[William Cavendish, 11th Earl of Devonshire|William Cavendish]] of Britain, and others. While the conspiracy proved to be unsuccessful, it greatly affected the political climate of Europe and the future of the French state.
==== 1944 Elections ====
In the 1944 elections, Dormoy was re-affirmed as the nation's president, narrowly beating his opponent. He supported and continued the efforts of the British to curb the influence of communardism. Along with this, he restored freedom of speech in France and granted clemency to former political prisoners who were arrested during Laframboise's dictatorial regime. The ban on National Republicanism in France was lifted in 1946. Despite these efforts, Dormoy was later known in history to be a weak and indecisive leader, contributing to France's political instability during the 1940s and 1950s.
 
The French people grew to become disillusioned with Britain once more, fueling the growth of the National Republican Party (PNRF) among the youth and in cities such as Paris. [[Jean-Jacques Caillat]] came out victorious in the 1949 elections. As a result, the British government took measures to disestablish the new national republican administration in France.
==== Cavendish Affair (1945) & Monarchism in France ====
{{Main|Cavendish Affair}}
In 1945, a conspiracy led by elites to restore monarchism in France was uncovered. Several bankers, clergymen, and other elites had conspired to orchestrate a coup d’etat in Paris, with the ultimate goal of abolishing the newly independent Fourth Republic of France and restoring a Capetian dynasty to power in France. The scandal also implicated elites from outside France, including the Banks of England, of Saint-George, and Providence, and also involved high-ranking politicians from New France, Genoa, and Britain (most notably William Cavendish, prime minister of Britain at the time). The conspiracy proved to be unsuccessful, but lived on to be one of the most highly-publicized international scandals.
 
== The Charenton State: from 1950 ==
==== The 1949 elections and the rise of the National Republican Party ====
The discovery of the Cavendish scandal paved the way for the disenfranchisement of the French people towards Britain and its allies. National Republicanism grew even more popular within the population as a result. By 1948, the National Republican Party of France (French: ''Parti National Républicain de France''; PNRF) had a huge following, mostly within the younger generation in the urban centers of France. In the 1949 elections, National-Republican candidate Jean-Jacques Caillat was elected as president of France. Caillat declared himself to be a moderate National Republican, but held suspicions against Great Britain. This drew ire from Britain, and it was not long before Britain decided to intervene.
 
==== ReturnCharenton tocoup dictatorshipd’état: (1950-19xx) ====
Merely months after the national republican victory in the 1949 French elections, military leader and decorated war hero [[Fulgence Morel]] overthrew the French state in a coup d’état with support from Britain. Morel, a man intent on dismantling the post-war status quo, accused the national republicans of rigging the election and maintaining illicit ties to the [[Russia|Russian government]]. The coup spelled the end of Russian influence in France and the beginning of a hostile, conservative policy against [[national republicanism]].
 
In December 1950, [[Britain]] formally recognized Morel's legitimate rule of France. He would remain in control of the Fourth Republic for nearly a decade. In the late 1950s, democratic demonstrations against Morel's government and pressure from the British forced France to conduct popular elections in 1960. However, the elections were marred with electoral fraud, leading to the victory of Morel's right-hand man, [[François Deveraux]]. Morel would still serve in several ministerial positions during the tenure of Deveraux.
==== Charenton coup d’état (1950) and military dictatorship ====
Merely months after the national republican victory in the 1949 French elections, military leader and decorated war hero Fulgence Morel has overthrown the French state in the Charenton coup d’état. Morel, a man intent on dismantling the post-war status quo, accused the national republicans of rigging the election and possessing illicit ties to the Russian government. Morel’s triumph spelled the end of Russian influence in France and the beginning of a hostile, conservative policy against national republicanism. In December 1950, Great Britain formally recognized Morel's rule over France. Morel would undisputedly rule over France for nearly a decade, and the legacy of his coup of the Fourth Republic would dominate the politics of the nation. In the 1950s, things started to change and soon calls for democracy came to a head in the later half of the decade, Great Britain pressured Morel to step down and conduct elections in 1960. However, the elections were marred with electoral fraud, leading to the election of Morel's right-hand man, François Deveraux, as the president of France. The dictatorial political climate of France did not change after the 1960 elections, and Morel still served an important role in the government as the Minister of the Interior.
== See also==
 
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* [[The Great War]]
{{Nations of the World}}
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