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East Indies Crisis: Difference between revisions
added more info: rogue states, refugee crisis, indo scheme and farmers revolt
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| conflict = East Indies Crisis
| image = [[File:Montage_East_Indies_Crisis.jpg|300 px]]
| caption =
Two soldiers standing after a military operation somewhere on Sumatra, A soldier running to cover during the early years, A Soendanese village after a battle
| partof = the [[Silent War]]
| date = 3 February 1960 – 22:03 11 November 1976
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== Phase II, The ''Bloodening:'' 1972–1976 ==
[[File:Grunt_somewhere_in_the_Jungle_of_eastern_sumatra.png|thumb|261x261px|Soldiers in the Malayan jungle, December 1972.]]
By 1972, Dutch forces were strategically dispersed throughout the Soenda archipelago. Java accommodated around 83,000 KNIL and regular Dutch soldiers, while 70,000 Dutch soldiers were stationed and actively engaged on Borneo. In Celebes, a contingent of approximately 90,000 soldiers was still embroiled in guerilla warfare. Moreover, about 120,000 troops were stationed in Soematra, and another 100,000 personnel were positioned in the Malayan peninsula, spanning Djohor and Penang. The Dutch military presence also extended to the naval and air forces, comprising 73,000 naval personnel and 120,000 air force personnel stationed across the entire archipelago.
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==== The March Offensives ====
[[File:Fighting_around_tanks.jpg|thumb|275x275px|Stier ZPKs providing cover for Dutch Landmacht soldiers in Gambang]]
In reaction to the uprisings, the Dutch mounted their own counteroffensives, collectively known as the ''March Offensives''. The Dutch counteroffensive was executed across multiple theaters of operation, with a primary focus on Java, where rapid and decisive responses were initiated. In Java, air mobile units were deployed in force to assert control and suppress any signs of resistance in towns.
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==== Operation Dolle Dinsdag (1973) ====
[[File:Soldiers_for_dolle_dinsdag.png|thumb|274x274px|Dutch shock troops preparing for Operation Dolle Dinsdag near Pinang]]
Following the diplomatic standoff, the Dutch initiated Operation Dolle Dinsdag (lit. "''mad Tuesday''") in southern Thaitania on February 5, 1973. This operation aimed to target and covertly eliminate SLA training facilities and resupply depots. The operation comprised a series of forty military incursions along Thaitania's southern frontier, most of which were successful. However, the operation had broader implications, leading to increased tensions between the Netherlands and Thaitania.
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=== April Revolution (1974) ===
On April 18, 1974, the Netherlands witnessed its largest anti-war protest to date, bringing the nation to a standstill. These protests were not limited to draft dodgers, anti-war politicians, and students; they included a wide cross-section of society. Mothers of the young men serving in the conflict, war veterans, fathers, and sons, as well as brothers who had lost their older siblings, all joined in.
[[File:Protest_I.jpg|thumb|281x281px|A large protest in Den Haag, featuring Dutch citizens of all ages, voicing their opposition to the war.]]
This conflict witnessed the unusual phenomenon of multiple generations from the same families actively participating in the war effort. These individuals were accompanied by their partners, wives, and friends who supported them in various capacities. A notable change in the collective sentiment had occurred, as the populace grew increasingly averse to witnessing their loved ones lose their lives in the East Indies Crisis. The war's ubiquity through television broadcasts had a profound impact, fundamentally reshaping the nation's outlook. Educational institutions also played a role in preparing children for prospective service in the East, contributing to the shaping of an entire generation potentially destined for military service.
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Meanwhile, leaders of the Soenda Liberation Army (SLA) celebrated the Dutch decision to withdraw, heralding it as a morale victory. This boost in morale further invigorated the SLA, adding to their determination to continue fighting.
==== Loss of Eastern Java (July 1976)====
[[File:SLA Soldiers Enter Semarang.png|thumb|249x249px|SLA soldiers enter Semarang]]
In March 1976, the eastern urban areas of Java were on the brink of an impending attack by the SLA, prompting meticulous preparations by the Dutch for their evacuation from the region. As they left, they also undertook the destruction of key military installations along their path. This departure created a significant power vacuum in Eastern Java, one that the SLA quickly exploited.
By July 1976, the SLA launched coordinated offensives in the strategic cities of Soerabaja, Djember, and Malang, successfully capturing these vital urban centers. In anticipation of the SLA's arrival, the local population was swift to eradicate any remnants of Dutch influence, which included the removal of Dutch flags, the abandonment of Dutch clothing, and the elimination of other symbols associated with Dutch colonialism.
=== Fall of Batavia ===
==== Siege of Batavia (October 1976) ====
By October, the rebellion had gradually advanced towards western Java. Soendanese forces, comprising both regular and guerrilla units, took advantage of the Dutch withdrawal and the presence of rogue KNIL units. Their progress led them to Batavia, initiating a massive siege and intense urban warfare that inflicted substantial damage on the city. Chemical weapons were used to deter the advancing rebels. In the midst of this chaotic final phase, the main objective was the evacuation of the remaining civilian population.
==== Final Evacuations of Batavia (November 1976) ====
By November, a meticulous and orderly process unfolded as Dutch forces prepared for an imminent evacuation. During this phase, the Dutch still had firm control over both air and naval resources in western Java, enabling them to execute raids with remarkable efficiency. The bustling port of Batavia played a central role in these critical preparations. Government officials, accompanied by staunch Dutch loyalists, swiftly embarked on ships. At 23:00, November 11 1976, Dutch radio stations, broadcasting for the last time, officially ended their transmissions. Colonial institutions, which had long symbolized Dutch influence, followed suit with ceremonies that closed the era of Dutch colonialism. Finally, at precisely 23:48 on November 11, 1976, the last Dutch vessel weighed anchor and departed from the port of Batavia and to the nearby colony of [[New Batavia]].
=== Final Military Operations ===
==== Air Offensives in Celebes and Borneo ====
Throughout the final years of the war, the Celebes and Bornean theatre of the conflict had been marked by continuous counter-insurgency and conventional warfare. Notably, it was during this time that Soendanese pilots gained valuable experience by engaging in a guerilla air campaign against the Dutch air forces, utilizing state-of-the-art Russian-supplied aircraft.
When the order for withdrawal finally arrived from higher authorities, the Captain-General Ronald Weerman, the commander of all Dutch forces on the island, set to work on a plan to gain air superiority in Celebes and Borneo, allowing for the safe evacuation of inexperienced recruits. All these preparations culminated in ''Operation Levensweg'', launched on October 1, 1976. This operation marked the largest air offensive of the entire conflict. ''Operation Levensweg'' involved a total of 971 combat sorties, which led to the partial destruction of the SLA's air force.
==== Operation Retributie ====
Operatie Retributie, also known as "''De laaste lag''" in the Netherlands, commenced on November 11, 1976, and officially concluded on December 31, 1976. The operation involved a series of large-scale evacuation efforts, commando raids, air strikes, and maritime raids conducted by the Netherlands against the Soendanese forces. Its primary objectives were to safeguard [[New Batavia]], prevent potential reprisals against Dutch interests, and secure Dutch shipping routes in the Malacca Strait and Kra Canal in [[Thaitania]].
== Post-War Situation (1977) ==
=== Formation of KNIL Rogue States ===
After the gradual de-escalation of the conflict between the Netherlands and Soendanese forces, several rogue states emerged in the areas of Soenda not under Soendanese control by early 1977. One of these entities was the Borneo Republic, founded by a rogue KNIL unit, which declared its sovereignty in Koetsjing, Eastern Borneo. However, the republic's lack of coordination and absence of connections with the local population quickly led to its disintegration within a few months. Similar rogue states emerged in early 1977, including the Free State of Brunei, and Bali (established by the self-proclaimed Balinese Liberation Army). These entities also proved short-lived and eventually capitulated to the Soendanese Liberation Front.
==== Free State of Pinang ====
{{Main|Pinang}}
The only rogue state to survive was Pinang, established by a rogue KNIL unit in July 1977, under the leadership of General Martin de Vries. What set Pinang apart was its predominantly Chinese population and a significant contingent of Dutch loyalists. General de Vries successfully collaborated with these factions to fend off Soendanese incursions into the region. The Chinese community in Pinang leveraged its connections with [[China]], seeking assistance and recognition, which prompted China to engage in negotiations with Soenda to deter any invasion of Pinang. Although Soenda initially hesitated, external factors such as an impending conflict with the Philippines diverted their attention away from Pinang. In 1979, the Amoy Agreement, facilitated by China, was ratified by Pinang and Soenda, officially establishing the Free State of Pinang.
== Aftermath ==
=== Rogue States ===
Following the war, a number of "rogue states" emerged in the region. These polities, often led by remnants of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army and Dutch loyalists, sought autonomy or continued alignment with Dutch colonial interests, challenging the new Soendanese government. There were several rogue states that appeared throughout the conflict: Bali, Borneo, Brunei Republic, Pinang, and South Moluccas, but only the latter two survived past the conflict.
==== Free State of Pinang ====
{{Main|Pinang}}
The Free State of Pinang was established by Dutch loyalists and former members of the Royal East Indies Army on Pinang Island and surrounding territories, a territory with a predominant Chinese population, and became a focal point of resistance against Soenda's efforts to consolidate power. This led to a conflict known as the [[Frontier war|Frontier War]].
==== South Moluccas ====
Self-declared as an independent nation, the South Moluccas operated effectively as a puppet state of the Dutch. Despite lacking international recognition, it represented a continuation of Dutch colonial influence and a significant challenge to Soendanese authority. Its existence would be a point of tension between Soenda, which wants to consolidate and annex South Moluccas into the nation, and the Philippines which wants to preserve stability in the region.
=== Refugee Crisis ===
Over the sixteen year course of the conflict, more than 4.7 million refugees fled Soenda. A majority of the refugees went to the Kingdom of the Netherlands and its constituent territories: Fiji, New Batavia, and Zeylan. The Chinese community of Soenda mostly fled to the Free State of Pinang. Others fled to neighboring Southeast Asian nations, to the Americas, and western Europe.
==== The Indo Scheme in New Batavia ====
{{Main|Indo Scheme}}
As a response to the growing refugee crisis, Dutch Prime Minister Koen Haverman approved the [[Indo Scheme]], formally known as the New Batavia Resettlement Program, in 1975, aimed at the resettlement of Indo refugees in [[New Batavia]].
==== Netherlands' Farmers' Revolt ====
{{Main|Farmer's Revolt}}
The influx of refugees in European Netherlands also caused a strain on the nation's infrastructure, prompting the Dutch government to began expansion of urban infrastructure to the eastern parts of the nation, which were predominantly agricultural lands. This expansion, although widely supported by the public, was faced with strong backlash from the rural community, particularly in Achterhoek. This led to protests which were initially peaceful, but later turned violent, which forced the Dutch government to crack down on the protests.
== See also ==
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